Vichar Swatantryano Itihas - Book Summary

This document is a translation of "History of the Freedom of Thought" by Professor J.B. Bury, translated into Gujarati by Khushvadanlal Chandulal Thakor and published by Gujarat Vernacular Society in 1929. The book is part of the Seth Sorabji Jamshedji Jeejeebhoy Memorial Series, volume 26.

The work traces the history of freedom of thought, focusing on the struggle between authority and intellect. It explores how thought has been suppressed and regained throughout history, primarily referencing Western civilization. The translator, Khushvadanlal Thakor, notes that while the book's content is Western-centric, it prompts reflection on the history of thought freedom in India, evoking mixed feelings of pride and shame.

The book is structured into several chapters:

Chapter 1: Freedom of Thought and Hindrances to it This chapter establishes the common notion that thought is free, but its true value lies in the freedom to express and propagate it. It highlights that despite the general perception of freedom of speech in modern times, this right was hard-won through struggle. The inherent human laziness and resistance to change, coupled with the vested interests of powerful social groups (like religious authorities, caste, and class), create significant obstacles to new ideas. The chapter uses the example of scientific discoveries being initially rejected because they clash with existing beliefs or threaten established orders.
Chapter 2: Freedom of Intellect This chapter focuses on the Greek contribution to the freedom of thought and criticism. It argues that Greek achievements in literature and art were a result of their intellectual freedom. The chapter delves into the early philosophers in Ionia, who began questioning the origins and structure of the universe. It highlights figures like Xenophanes, who criticized anthropomorphism in deities and challenged traditional beliefs. The absence of a sacred, unchallengeable religious text like the Bible is identified as a key reason for the Greeks' intellectual freedom. The text also discusses the lack of a powerful, oppressive priestly class in Greece, which contributed to a more open intellectual environment. The chapter then touches upon early philosophers like Heraclitus and Democritus, and the impact of the Sophists in preparing the ground for intellectual inquiry. It also mentions the occasional persecution of thinkers like Socrates and Anaxagoras, and the charges of impihet brought against them, showcasing the limits and challenges to freedom of thought even in ancient Greece. The influence of Greek thought on Rome and later civilizations is also briefly mentioned.
Chapter 3: Control of Intellect This chapter discusses the medieval period in Europe, where Christianity, after being accepted as a state religion, began to suppress intellectual freedom. The book argues that the belief that Christianity is the sole path to salvation led to a systematic suppression of differing thoughts. The chapter outlines the core tenets that fueled this intolerance, such as the damnation of non-believers and the justification of worldly persecution for the sake of eternal salvation. It criticizes the influence of Jewish writings within Christianity, highlighting their often violent and barbaric content, and how these texts were used to justify religious persecution. The chapter details the rise of the Inquisition and its systematic methods for rooting out heresy, and mentions instances of brutal punishments for perceived deviations from religious dogma. It also discusses the influence of figures like St. Augustine and later Popes in enforcing intellectual conformity.
Chapter 4: Hope for Liberation This chapter marks the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy in the 13th century, signifying a gradual shift away from medieval ignorance. It highlights the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman literature as a catalyst for this change, fostering humanism and a new intellectual awakening. The chapter notes that this period, while bringing about intellectual development, did not immediately lead to open rebellion against established dogma but rather a gradual emancipation. It discusses the role of thinkers like Montaigne and Charron, who expressed skepticism towards established religious doctrines while outwardly conforming. The chapter also touches upon the Reformation, not as a direct pursuit of religious freedom, but as a political and social upheaval that indirectly paved the way for greater intellectual freedom by fragmenting religious authority. The influence of figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin is discussed, highlighting their own intolerance despite their break from the Catholic Church.
Chapter 5: Religious Freedom This chapter delves into the history of religious freedom, starting with Emperor Ashoka in India who granted equal status and freedom to different religious sects. It then shifts to Europe, discussing the Edicts of Toleration issued by Roman emperors that eventually led to religious freedom for Christians and the end of religious persecution. The chapter identifies the 16th-century religious conflicts as a period when religious freedom became a significant political issue. It outlines various degrees of religious toleration, from allowing certain Christian sects while persecuting others, to complete freedom for all religions except atheism, and finally to granting partial civic rights to religious minorities. The chapter highlights the evolution of religious freedom in Western countries through these various stages of toleration. It discusses the emergence of Unitarianism in Transylvania and Poland, and the influence of thinkers like Faustus Socinus who advocated for religious tolerance and criticized the use of force in religious matters. The chapter also mentions Roger Williams in America, who established Rhode Island on principles of religious freedom and separation of church and state, and Maryland's Act of Religious Toleration. However, it points out that complete religious freedom was not immediately achieved, and limitations persisted, particularly against Catholics and atheists in some contexts.
Chapter 6: The Growth of Rationalism This chapter covers the period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, detailing the progressive development of rationalism and its impact on challenging religious dogma and authority. It discusses the growing skepticism towards Christian scriptures due to perceived inconsistencies and conflicts with scientific discoveries. The chapter highlights the contributions of thinkers like Hobbes and Spinoza, who laid the groundwork for materialist and pantheistic philosophies, respectively. John Locke's emphasis on experience as the source of knowledge and his critique of blind faith are discussed, along with his advocacy for freedom of thought and speech. The chapter also examines the limited but significant impact of thinkers like David Hume, who questioned the empirical basis of miracles and criticized traditional arguments for God's existence. The works of William Paley and his attempt to reconcile science with Christianity, as well as Gibbon's critical examination of Christianity's rise, are presented as key texts of this era. The chapter notes the influence of German philosophers like Kant and Hegel, and the emergence of Positivism with Auguste Comte. The growing acceptance of scientific explanations for natural phenomena, challenging religious narratives, is a central theme.
Chapter 7: Progress of Rationalism This chapter continues the discussion on the progress of rationalism, focusing on the 19th century. It details the impact of scientific discoveries in geology, biology (Darwin's theory of evolution), and the historical-critical method applied to religious texts. The chapter explains how these advancements challenged biblical literalism and the traditional understanding of creation and miracles. It highlights the works of scholars like Colenso, Reimar, and later, the "Higher Criticism" applied to the Bible, which revealed inconsistencies and questioned the divine inspiration of scriptures. The chapter also discusses the rise of secularism and its influence on individuals like Matthew Arnold, and the impact of thinkers like Carlyle and the Pre-Raphaelite movement in questioning religious dogma and promoting secular values. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the growing understanding that human progress is driven by intellectual and scientific inquiry, and that religious and social institutions need to adapt to evolving societal needs and scientific knowledge.
Chapter 8: The Reality of Freedom of Thought This final chapter reflects on the progress made in achieving freedom of thought and the ongoing challenges. It argues that while significant strides have been made, the struggle is not entirely over. The chapter discusses the importance of free discussion and the dangers of suppressing dissenting opinions, even if they are perceived as erroneous. It emphasizes that the freedom to express oneself, even if it leads to challenging established norms, is essential for intellectual and societal progress. The chapter also touches upon the ongoing debate about the limits of free speech and the potential for harm caused by certain expressions. It concludes by asserting that freedom of thought, though a hard-won battle, is a continuous process requiring vigilance and active participation from individuals and society.

In essence, the book provides a historical overview of the evolution of freedom of thought, highlighting the persistent tension between established authority and intellectual inquiry, and underscoring the importance of critical thinking and open discourse for societal advancement.