Uttar Hindusthan Ma Jain Dharm

This comprehensive summary is based on the provided Jain text, "Uttar Hindusthan ma Jain Dharm" (Jainism in North India), authored by Chimanlal J. Shah, Fulchand Doshi, and Chimanlal Dalsukhbhai Shah, and published by Longmans, Green and Company, London, in 1937. The book is a detailed study of the presence and influence of Jainism in North India from approximately 800 BCE to 200 CE.

The text is structured into several chapters, exploring various facets of Jainism's historical and cultural impact in the region. Here's a breakdown of the key themes and information presented:

Introduction and Overview:

• Title and Authors: "Uttar Hindusthan ma Jain Dharm" (Jainism in North India). The authors are Chimanlal J. Shah, Fulchand Doshi, and Chimanlal Dalsukhbhai Shah.
• Publication: Published by Longmans, Green and Company, London, in 1937.
• Academic Context: The book originated from a Master of Arts thesis presented to the University of Bombay in March 1933.
• Significance: The work aims to present the historical narrative of Jainism in North India, filling a gap in the study of Indian religions that often overlook Jainism's significant contributions.

Key Themes and Content:

1. Jainism Before Mahavira:

   • The text asserts the antiquity of Jainism, predating Buddhism and Brahmanism.
   • It discusses the historical existence of Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, citing evidence from Buddhist and Hindu literature. Parshvanatha's followers and their practices are mentioned, along with the belief that Mahavira was not the founder but a reformer within an existing tradition.
   • The concept of Tirthankaras and their lineage is introduced, highlighting Rishabhanatha as the first and Parshvanatha and Mahavira as the 23rd and 24th Tirthankaras of the current era. The immense lifespans attributed to earlier Tirthankaras are contrasted with the more human lifespans of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, which some scholars view as evidence of their historical reality.

2. Mahavira and His Time:

   • The socio-religious and political climate of ancient India during Mahavira's time (roughly 6th century BCE) is described. This period was marked by the decline of the Vedic religion, the rise of caste rigidity, the corruption within the Brahminical system, and the emergence of critical philosophical thought.
   • Mahavira's life, including his birth, renunciation, asceticism (including nudity), enlightenment under the Shalavriksha tree, and eventual Nirvana at Pavapuri, is detailed. The text emphasizes his emphasis on Ahimsa (non-violence), Anekantavada (non-absolutism), and the principles of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct (the Three Jewels) as the path to liberation.
   • The text discusses the schisms within Jainism, including the Ājīvika sect founded by Makkhali Gosāla (a contemporary and rival of Mahavira), the disagreement between Jamali (Mahavira's son-in-law) and Mahavira's teachings, and the eventual divergence into the Śvetambara and Digambara traditions. The historical dating of Mahavira's Nirvana is discussed, with various scholarly opinions presented, ultimately leaning towards a date around 467 BCE.

3. Jainism in Royal Dynasties (800 BCE - 200 BCE):

   • This chapter explores the patronage and influence of Jainism among various ruling dynasties in North India during this period.
   • Parshvanatha's Influence: It suggests that Parshvanatha's influence extended to royal families, with his disciples being active in propagating the faith.
   • Kasi and Panchala Regions: The text highlights the connection between these regions and Jainism, mentioning kings like Brahmadatta and Jayendra who embraced Jainism or held it in high regard. The close relationship between Kasi and Panchala is noted, with Prasenajit of Panchala having marital ties to the Kashi royal family.
   • Videha and Lichchavis: The importance of Videha, with its capital Mithila, and the Lichchavis clan is discussed. Mahavira's mother, Trishala, being a Lichchavi princess from Videha, underscores the connection. The Lichchavis, described as a powerful republic, were significantly influenced by Mahavira's teachings.
   • Malla and Kashi-Kosal Kings: The Mallas, associated with Pavā and Kuśinagara (where Mahavira and Buddha attained Nirvana respectively), are mentioned as devotees of Mahavira. The eighteen republican kings of Kashi-Kosal are also noted as supporters of Mahavira, participating in his Nirvana celebrations.
   • Magadha and the Shishunaga Dynasty: The text details the growing influence of Magadha, starting with Bimbisara (Shrenika), who is portrayed as a devout follower of Mahavira. His son Ajatashatru (Kunika) is also discussed in relation to Jainism, with both Jain and Buddhist traditions offering differing accounts of his life and relationship with Mahavira. The text generally leans towards the Jain perspective, suggesting Ajatashatru's respect for Mahavira.
   • The Nandas: The rise of the Nanda dynasty, their possible Jain affiliations (especially the ministers like Shakatalya and Sthulabhadra), and their political impact are explored. The story of Chandragupta Maurya's overthrow of the Nandas is also recounted, with the Jain tradition suggesting Chandragupta's own conversion to Jainism.

4. Jainism in Kalinga:

   • This chapter focuses on the significant presence of Jainism in Kalinga, primarily through the reign of King Kharavela.
   • Kharavela: Kharavela is presented as a great Jain emperor whose reign (around 2nd century BCE) is documented through the significant Hathigumpha inscription. This inscription is considered invaluable for understanding Jainism's history in Kalinga and its political and cultural impact.
   • Hathigumpha Inscription: The inscription is analyzed for its historical details, including Kharavela's military campaigns, his patronage of Jainism, the references to Nanda kings taking Jain idols from Kalinga, and the influence of Greek rulers like Demetrius. The inscription's religious implications, particularly Kharavela's patronage of Jain ascetics and the construction of caves and temples, are highlighted.
   • Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves: The archaeological significance of these caves, their Jain association, and the sculptures found within them are discussed, providing tangible evidence of Jainism's presence.

5. Mathura Inscriptions:

   • This chapter delves into the inscriptions found in Mathura, highlighting their importance in understanding the presence of Jainism during the Indo-Scythian and Kushan periods (roughly 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE).
   • Āyāgapaṭas: The discovery of Āyāgapaṭas (worship tablets) is discussed, providing insights into Jain devotional practices and iconography.
   • Shodash and other Rulers: The inscriptions shed light on rulers like Shodash (Mahakshatrapa), his father Rajubala, and the Kushan kings (Kanishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva), indicating the extent of their patronage or tolerance towards Jainism.
   • Saka Era and Dating: The ambiguity surrounding the dating of some inscriptions (Saka vs. Vikram era) is acknowledged, but the general timeframe is established.
   • Yaksha Worship and Jain Beliefs: The presence of Yaksha worship and its connection to Jain beliefs is explored, along with the depiction of Tirthankaras and their symbols.

6. Jainism during the Gupta Period:

   • This section examines the state of Jainism during the Gupta Empire (roughly 4th to 6th centuries CE).
   • Gupta Patronage: While the Gupta rulers were primarily Vaishnavites, they generally practiced religious tolerance, and their patronage extended to Jainism. Evidence from inscriptions suggests the presence of Jain communities and activities during this period.
   • Vallabhi Dynasty: The rise of the Vallabhi dynasty in Saurashtra and its connection to Jainism is discussed. The council held in Vallabhi under Devardhigani Kshamashramana, which is crucial for the compilation of Jain scriptures, is highlighted. The text also touches upon the emergence of the Śvetambara tradition during this era.

7. Northern Jain Literature:

   • This chapter provides an overview of the vast Jain literary corpus, including the Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chedasutras, and Mūlasutras.
   • Śvetambara Canon: The text primarily focuses on the Śvetambara canon, acknowledging that the Digambaras have a separate tradition.
   • Key Works: It discusses significant works like the Ācārānga Sutra, Sūtra-kṛtānga Sūtra, Bhagavati Sūtra, Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, Kalpa-Sutra (attributed to Bhadrabahu), and the works of influential ācāryas like Dharmadasagani, Umasvati, and Siddhasena Divakara.
   • Language and Influence: The evolution of Jain literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit, and its influence on Indian philosophy, grammar, and literature, is briefly touched upon. The philosophical underpinnings, particularly Anekantavada and Syadvada, are mentioned.

8. Northern Jain Art:

   • This chapter discusses the artistic contributions of Jainism in North India, focusing on architecture and sculpture.
   • Architectural Styles: The text highlights the distinctive architectural styles, often found in hills and remote locations, with prominent examples being the temples on Mounts Shatrunjaya and Girnar, as well as cave temples in Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa.
   • Sculptural Representations: The detailed descriptions of Jain sculptures, including Tirthankara images, their symbols (like the snake hood for Parshvanatha), and the depictions of Yakshas and celestial beings, are provided. The Mathura school of art and its Jain artifacts are given special attention, noting the blend of Indian and foreign influences.
   • Iconography: The characteristic meditative posture of Tirthankaras, the presence of protective deities (Yakshas, Yakshinis), and the symbolic representations are explained. The influence of popular beliefs and the syncretic nature of some depictions are also mentioned.

Conclusion (Upsamhar):

• The concluding remarks reiterate Jainism's resilience despite its challenges and the geographical limitations of its historical records.
• The authors emphasize the need for further research into Jainism's rich literary and archaeological heritage, especially in North India, to gain a more complete understanding of its past and its significant contributions to Indian civilization.
• The book acknowledges the limitations of the current research but offers a comprehensive foundation for understanding Jainism's historical presence and impact in North India.

Overall Scope:

The book provides a scholarly yet accessible account of Jainism's historical journey in North India. It draws upon ancient Jain scriptures, archaeological findings, and the works of various historians and scholars to paint a detailed picture of Jainism's religious, philosophical, cultural, and political influence. The text highlights the importance of figures like Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the patronage of royal dynasties, the development of Jain literature, and the artistic expressions of Jainism. It also addresses key doctrinal aspects and the historical evolution of the faith, including its schisms.