Uposath Paushadh - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, focusing on the "Uposath Paushadh" concept, written in English:

This document, from Sukhlal Sanghavi's "Jain Dharma aur Darshan" (Jain Religion and Philosophy), specifically discusses the Jain practice of Paushadh (or Uposath), a significant vow for householders.

Key Points and Sections:

Comparison with Buddhist Concepts: The text begins by drawing a distinction between Jain and Buddhist traditions, noting that while both have lists of vows or precepts, the specifics differ. For instance, the Jain fifth vow is non-possession (Aparigraha), while Buddhism's fifth precept concerns abstinence from intoxicants. A question is raised about whether Mahavir originated the vow of celibacy or if he adopted it from existing traditions, acknowledging that older traditions like Samkhya-Yoga also mention vows like Ahimsa.
Misinterpretation of Chatur Yamas in Buddhist Texts: The author observes that Buddhist texts frequently mention "Chatur Yamas" (four restraints), but their interpretations in the original Pitakas and their commentaries are considered incorrect and unclear. This lack of clarity is attributed to potential sectarian biases where one tradition doesn't always do justice to another. It's suggested that early Buddhists might have known the true meaning of Chatur Yamas, but later compilations led to misinterpretations. Similar misrepresentations are also noted from the Jain side regarding Buddhist teachings.
Current Form of Paushadh Vrat: The text describes the present-day practice of Paushadh vrat for Jain householders. Both men and women observe it. Those who take the vow commit to a period (one, two, or three days, or more, as per their capacity) of purely religious living, abstaining from worldly activities. They can choose to eat once a day or fast completely. They also adopt attire befitting a monk for the duration of the vow, essentially becoming aspirants to a monastic life. Paushadh is considered the eleventh of the twelve vows suitable for householders and is consistently mentioned in Jain scriptures from Agamas onwards.
Historical Inquiry into Paushadh: The author outlines the key historical questions to be addressed regarding Paushadh:
- Was Paushadh prevalent in the Jain (Nirgranth) tradition before and during Mahavir's time, and what was its nature?
- What was the place of Paushadh in Buddhist and other Shraman traditions, and what were their views on it?
- What is the origin of the Paushadh vow, and what was its original term?
Evidence from Jain Scriptures: The text cites the Upasakadashanga Sutra, which details the lives of Mahavir's ten chief disciples, including the observation of Paushadh in a "Paushadhshala" (a place for observing Paushadh). The Bhagavati Sutra (Shatak 12, Uddesh 1) mentions the disciple Shankh who took Paushadh, some with and some without food. This indicates that even in ancient times, Paushadh could be observed with or without partaking food.
Evidence from Buddhist Scriptures (Anguttara Nikaya): The author draws attention to the Anguttara Nikaya, a Buddhist scripture, where the Buddha is depicted describing three types of "Upasth" (the Pali equivalent of Paushadh):
- Gopalaka-Upasth: This refers to observing the vow while still discussing food and drink, similar to how cowherds report where their cattle grazed.
- Nigranth-Upasth: This is identified as the Paushadh observed by the Nirgranth (Jain) tradition. The Buddha criticizes it, stating that Jains might vow not to harm creatures beyond a certain distance but continue to harm those within that limit, thus not fully escaping harm. He also criticizes their claim of being alone and having no one while still acknowledging family ties, suggesting they are speaking falsely (mishra bhasha) in such instances.
- Arya-Upasth: This is the "noble" or superior Upasth, advocated by the Buddha, which involves meditating on the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, and virtues, leading to the reduction of mental afflictions. It involves limited vows for a day and night, holding noble ideals in remembrance.
Significance of the Buddhist Critique: Despite the criticism, the Buddha's mention of "Nigranth-Upasth" in the Anguttara Nikaya confirms that the Paushadh practice was indeed prevalent in the Jain tradition during the Buddha's time. The fact that Buddhist texts felt the need to counter and differentiate their own form of Upasth ("Arya-Upasth") highlights the established status and importance of the Jain Paushadh. The author argues that the descriptions of Paushadh in Jain scriptures like Bhagavati and Upasakadashanga cannot be considered later interpolations.
Comparison with Ajivika Tradition: While the Ajivika tradition is also a Shraman tradition, its literature is not as readily available as Buddhist or Jain texts. However, the possibility of them also observing Paushadh is acknowledged. The critical discussions about Paushadh observed by Jains in Jain scriptures (e.g., the dialogue between Gautam and Mahavir regarding the mock criticism by Ajivikas of monks abandoning possessions and family ties during Samayika, a precursor to Paushadh) are seen as reflecting similar critiques found in the Anguttara Nikaya. It's suggested that if the Ajivika tradition also had such practices, they might have also criticized the Jain Paushadh.
Linguistic Origins of Upavasatha/Paushadh: The text delves into the etymology and evolution of the word. The Sanskrit term is Upavasatha, which gave rise to the Pali form Uposatha. Through linguistic changes (v becoming u, and loss of 'v' and changes in 'th'), it also led to Prakrit forms like Posaha and Posadha. These, in turn, evolved into Sanskritized forms like Paushadh and Praushadh. Different linguistic streams and interpretations led to these variations, but they all stem from the same root concept.
Origin of the Vow: The underlying sentiment behind the Paushadh vow is the same across traditions. The Vedic tradition, which emphasizes rituals and worship of deities, also incorporates fasting during certain sacrifices (Yajnas) on days like Amavasya (new moon) and Pournami (full moon), calling these days Upavasatha. The Shraman tradition, in contrast, emphasizes self-purification and introspection rather than Vedic rituals. However, they adopted the same auspicious days (Amavasya and Pournami) for fasting and contemplation. They also included Ashtami (eighth day) to break the long interval between these dates. This led to the practice of observing fasts and contemplating the self on Ashtami and Pournami, and Ashtami and Amavasya. This practice is what continued as Uposatha in Buddhism and Posaha in Jainism. Regardless of the tradition, the purpose of fasting is for self-peace and spiritual progress. Therefore, the ultimate origin of the Paushadh vow is spiritual progress itself.
Influence and Development: A final question is posed: did the Shraman tradition's Upasth/Posaha originate from the Vedic tradition's Upavasatha, or vice versa? The author admits it's difficult to ascertain definitively due to the ancient origins. However, it's noted that the Vedic Upavasatha is considered a means to worldly pleasure (preya), while the Shraman Uposatha/Posaha is seen as a means to spiritual liberation (shreyas). If one considers the development of human thought, the concept of shreyas might have emerged after preya. This suggests that even if the Shraman fasting practice is ancient, it might bear the imprint of the Vedic Upavasatha rituals.

In essence, the text meticulously traces the history, practice, and linguistic origins of the Jain Paushadh vow, comparing it with similar practices in Buddhism and acknowledging its potential connections and distinctions with Vedic traditions, ultimately underscoring its role as a vital spiritual discipline for lay followers.