Tattvartha Sutra Me Nihit Gyan Charcha Ek Nirikshan - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Tattvartha Sutra me Nihit Gyan Charcha Ek Nirikshan" by Kaumudi Baldota, based on the provided pages:

Book Title: Tattvartha Sutra me Nihit Gyan Charcha Ek Nirikshan (A Study of the Discussion on Knowledge in the Tattvartha Sutra) Author: Kaumudi Baldota Publisher: Kaumudi Baldota

This paper, presented at the 57th All India Philosophy Conference in Parner, Maharashtra, in January 2013, by Dr. Kaumudi Baldota, explores the concept of knowledge as presented in the Tattvartha Sutra, a foundational text in Jain philosophy. The research is guided by Dr. Nalini Joshi.

Introduction:

The paper begins by noting that prior to the 5th century CE, Jain literature primarily focused on the five types of knowledge. The discussion on the authenticity and number of pramanas (means of valid knowledge) gained prominence after the 5th century CE, with the advent of the Nyaya school. The Tattvartha Sutra, being the earliest Sanskrit sutra-based Jain philosophical text, specifically delineates five types of knowledge. This research paper centers on this discussion.

Selection of Topic:

In the modern age of information and technology, with a deluge of knowledge from various media, the paper aims to understand how the five types of knowledge defined in the Jain tradition can be contextualized in this contemporary environment. The paper's starting point is the contemplation of this arrangement.

Jain Philosophical Approach to Knowledge:

A core tenet of Jain philosophy is the examination of any doctrine or event from both the vyavahar (conventional) and nishchay (ultimate) perspectives. Jain ideology flows naturally from the conventional to the ultimate, and from ethics to spirituality. This principle applies to the five types of knowledge:

Mati (sensory knowledge) and Shruta (scriptural knowledge) are at the level of vyavahar (conventionality).
Avadhi (clairvoyance) and Manahparyaya (telepathy) reflect both ethics and spirituality.
Kevala (omniscience) is entirely related to spirituality, or nishchay (ultimate truth).

The paper acknowledges that a comprehensive discussion of these five types of knowledge exists in later Jain texts, which could fill an entire book. However, the author intends to present new observations from a modern perspective, setting aside the entirety of traditional discourse.

Traditional Scholarly Discussion of Knowledge:

Jain texts like Shatkhandagama, Kashaypahud, Bhagavati Aradhana, Sarvarthasiddhi, Rajavartika, Dhavala, Syadvadamanziri, Dravyasangraha, Aradhanavishayak prakirna sahitya, and Parikshamukha extensively discuss knowledge based on various issues, including:

Types and characteristics of knowledge.
The nature of knowledge.
The independent existence of knowledge from senses.
The self-illuminating and other-illuminating nature of knowledge.
Signs of acquiring knowledge.
Simultaneous possible knowledge in one soul.
Differentiated and undifferentiated knowledge.
Right knowledge and wrong knowledge.
The eight limbs of right knowledge.
Knowledge and contemplation.
Knowledge as a hardship.
Nishchaya and Vyavahar right knowledge.
'Jnanavaraniya' (knowledge-obscuring karma) as the first of the eight karmas.
The knowledgeable person.
The learned person and control without attachment.
Violation and transgressions of knowledge.
Thoughts on knowledge in the context of Sallekhana (controlled fasting unto death).
Knowledge in relation to Gani (teacher), Acharya (preceptor), and Niryapak (administrator).
Knowledge worship and death.
Consciousness of knowledge (Jnanopayoga).
Victory over senses and passions through knowledge.
Ignorance and analogies related to knowledge.

The paper aims to present observations not covered in these detailed discussions, offering a fresh perspective.

Key Facts Regarding Knowledge:

Importance of Knowledge in Tattvartha Sutra: The author Umaswati, compiler of the Tattvartha Sutra, understood the necessity of clearly establishing the role of knowledge at the outset. Hence, the first chapter is dedicated to the discussion of knowledge.
Definition of Knowledge: The Tattvartha Sutra does not explicitly define 'knowledge.' Its style is to present characteristics and types rather than exhaustive definitions. Later commentators provided definitions from a Jain perspective, with Sarvarthasiddhi's definition being prominent: "Janaati, jayaate anena, jnaptimaatram va jnanam" (That which knows is knowledge, that by which something is known is knowledge, or knowledge is mere knowing). This signifies the unity of the knowledge-creating, knowledge-instrument, and knowledge-content aspects in knowledge. This definition leans towards nishchaya (ultimate truth) and spirituality.
Nature of Knowledge: Jain scholars universally agree that knowledge is both self-illuminating and other-illuminating. All Jain texts derive their extensive knowledge discussions from the fifth Purva (ancient scripture), the 'Jnanapravada,' within the 'Drishtivada.'
Focus on the Soul, Not the Mind: Jain knowledge discussions are not centered on the 'mind' or 'internal organ' (antahkaran). Since knowledge is the soul's inherent nature and quality, the soul is the substratum and basis for all types of knowledge.
Connection between Knowledge and Perception: The Prakrit phrase "jaanai paasai" (knows and sees) is frequently repeated in ancient Ardhamagadhi texts, emphasizing the close relationship between knowledge and perception (darshana) in Jainism. This connection is often described as simultaneous, like the light of a lamp. While "paasai" relates to direct observation, it later became associated with 'faith,' eventually leading to the concept of 'samyaktva' (right faith). Consequently, both knowledge-consciousness (jnanopayoga) and perception-consciousness (darshanopayoga) are included in the description of the soul.
Inherent Infinite Knowledge: According to Jain doctrine, every soul inherently possesses infinite knowledge, obscured by karmic coverings accumulated over countless lifetimes. As these coverings are shed through sanvara (cessation of karmic influx) and tapa (asceticism), knowledge manifests.

Analysis Based on Sutras:

The paper then delves into a detailed analysis of specific aspects of knowledge as presented in the Tattvartha Sutra, referencing its principles and contrasting them with other traditions and interpretations.

(A) Sutra-Oriented Review:

Knowledge and Liberation: Despite the extensive discussion on knowledge, Jain tradition, including the Tattvartha Sutra, does not posit "liberation solely through knowledge." Jain philosophy emphasizes the coordinated effort of perception, knowledge, and conduct (darshan-jnana-charitra) for liberation, disagreeing with some other Indian philosophical systems that suggest liberation through "knowledge and action."
Unity of Knowledge: Umaswati states that Mati, Shruta, Avadhi, Manahparyaya, and Kevala are knowledge. The use of the singular noun "Jnanam" despite referring to five types indicates that knowledge in the soul is not classified but rather a unified entity.
Pramana and Direct/Indirect Knowledge: The subsequent three sutras briefly discuss pramana. According to the Tattvartha Sutra, these five types of knowledge become pramanas when they are "proper" (samyak). Mati (sensory knowledge) and Shruta (scriptural knowledge) are paroksha (indirect) as they rely on senses and mind. Avadhi, Manahparyaya, and Kevala are pratyaksha (direct) as they occur directly to the soul without the aid of senses and mind. This distinction between direct and indirect knowledge is not universally accepted by other Indian philosophers. The Nandi Sutra differentiates Mati and Shruta as "Indriya Pratyaksha" (sense-perceived) and the last three as "Noindriya Pratyaksha" (non-sense-perceived). The Anuyogadvara Sutra, predating Tattvartha Sutra, identifies four pramanas: direct perception, inference, analogy, and scripture. Umaswati, however, adheres to the direct-indirect classification from scriptures, largely ignoring the broader categories.

(3) Detailed Discussion of Matijnana (Sensory Knowledge):

Synonyms for Matijnana: Umaswati equates Matijnana with smriti (memory), sanjna (cognition), chinta (thinking), and abhinibodha (immediate apprehension).
Etymology and Meaning of "Mati": The word 'Mati' is derived from the root 'man' (to think), emphasizing the process of "manana" (meditation or contemplation). The term "Indriya Pratyaksha" replaced "Mati" in the Nyaya and dialectical eras. In a conventional sense, 'Mati' unequivocally means 'intellect.'
Distinction Between Synonyms: The paper argues that equating Mati, Smriti, Sanjna, Chinta, and Abhinibodha as synonyms is inaccurate. Mati relates to thinking, Smriti to remembering, Sanjna to recognition, Chinta to contemplation, and Abhinibodha to immediate apprehension – distinct mental processes. The author praises Jain philosophy for its subtle classification of these terms but cautions against equating them.
Jatismaran (Memory of Past Lives): While examples of Jatismaran are abundant in Jain narrative literature, its systematic inclusion is not evident in the Tattvartha Sutra's discussion of Matijnana or in its commentaries. It is closely related to Avadhijnana but not explicitly discussed under either. This has led to a common belief that Jatismaran is a type of pure Matijnana.
The Term "Anindriya" for Mind: In the sutra "Tadindriya-anindriyanimittam" (caused by sense or non-sense), the term "anindriya" is used for the mind. Despite 'man,' 'chitta,' and 'antahkaran' being common terms, Umaswati insists on "anindriya." The paper suggests this might be to distinguish Tattvartha Sutra from systems like Patanjali Yoga, which emphasize 'chitta' and 'antahkaran,' or to reduce the perceived importance of the mind. The author notes that the term "mind" is used in "Manahparyaya" without the qualifier "anindriya." In texts like Dhavala, "anindriya" signifies the absence of senses, not the mind itself.
Development of Matijnana (Avagraha, Iha, Avaya, Dharana): Umaswati explains the progressive development of sensory knowledge through the four stages of avagraha (initial grasping), iha (investigation), avaya (determination), and dharana (retention). This detailed explanation is considered a hallmark of Umaswati's insight. The Nandi Sutra dedicates five out of thirty-five verses on epistemology to these stages.
Exceptions to Sensory Contact: While Nyaya philosophy generally posits that knowledge arises from the contact between sense organs and their objects, the Tattvartha Sutra identifies two exceptions: visual knowledge (chakshush jnana) and mind-generated knowledge (manojanya jnana), which do not require direct physical contact with the object. The author agrees with Umaswati regarding the mind, as direct contact isn't essential for its functioning. For other senses, only touch requires direct contact. Sound, smell, and light are considered material (pudgalamaya) in Jainism, and knowledge arises only upon contact with the respective sense organs. Modern understanding of visual knowledge posits that reflected light rays interacting with the retina create an image. Since light rays are also material, visual knowledge is similar to smell and sound knowledge. The sutra "Na chakshuranindriyabhyam" (not through eyes or mind) cannot be an exception according to modern understanding.

(4) Detailed Discussion of Shrutajnana (Scriptural Knowledge):

Importance of Senses and Mind: All worldly and practical knowledge relies heavily on the five senses and the mind, hence Umaswati dedicates eight sutras to sensory knowledge.
Shruta as a Source of Knowledge: The Jain tradition considers scriptural knowledge (shruta or amnaya) as another important source. Other philosophies extensively discuss their own scriptures as word-proofs (shabdapramana), calling them authoritative sayings (aptavakya).
Shruta is Dependent on Mati: Umaswati states, "Shrutam matipurvam dvayanekadvadashabhedam" (Shruta follows Mati and has two, many, or twelve classifications). The paper notes that the "many" classification receives less attention from commentators, who generally interpret it as referring to non-Jain scriptures and literature studied in contemporary formal education.
Classifications of Shruta: The Nandi Sutra classifies Shruta into two types: samyak shruta (right scriptural knowledge), referring to Jain scriptures, and mithya shruta (wrong scriptural knowledge), which includes texts like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Patanjali Yoga, Vedas, etc. A significant comment by the Nandi Sutra states that if read with a right perspective, even mithya shruta can become samyak shruta. This liberality encouraged later Jain scholars to engage creatively with epic poems, didactic texts, character studies, and treatises on grammar, mathematics, Ayurveda, and ethics.
Akshara and Anakshara Shruta: The Nandi Sutra further categorizes Shruta into akshara shruta (scripture in written form) and anakshara shruta (unwritten scripture). The latter includes vocal sounds of birds and animals, as well as gestures, expressions, and body language. The author praises this classification, asserting that all modern means of acquiring knowledge, such as television, media, and the internet, can be included under anakshara shruta. However, knowledge gained from these sources must be critically examined for its authenticity and logical validity to be considered samyak shruta; otherwise, it falls under kushruta (bad scripture). This category can be expanded to include social and religious symbols, family customs, stories, traditions, and even a child's initial language acquisition efforts.
Umaswati's and Nandi Sutra's Contribution: The paper concludes that Umaswati's and the Nandi Sutra's detailed analysis of Mati and Shruta, respectively, demonstrate a profound understanding of these fundamental means of practical knowledge acquisition.
Kalika and Utkalika Shruta: Another classification of Shruta is kalika (time-bound) and utkalika (timeless). Kalika refers to scriptures meant for study at specific times of the day, while utkalika can be studied at any time. The paper suggests an alternative interpretation: kalika scriptures are relevant to their contemporary context, while utkalika scriptures or ideas possess universal and eternal relevance, encompassing subjects like metaphysics, biology, astronomy, and cosmology. Ethical texts might be considered kalika.
Eligibility for Shruta: The phrase "Shrutam matipurvam" implies that only individuals with capable senses can be recipients of Shruta knowledge, specifically referring to Jain scriptures. This also connects to eligibility for initiation. While physically disabled individuals might possess spiritual qualities, the paper notes the absence of examples in Jain scriptures of blind or lame individuals being initiated. Social and organizational reasons might contribute to this, but from a purely spiritual standpoint, no impediment is apparent.

(5) Detailed Discussion of Avadhijnana (Clairvoyance):

Intermediate Position of Avadhijnana: Mati and Shruta are primarily worldly and practical. Manahparyaya and Kevala are entirely spiritual. Avadhijnana, with its mixed aspects of right and wrong, and its eligibility criteria, appears to be the crucial intermediate link in the chain of five knowledge types, connecting worldly knowledge with the initial steps of spiritual advancement.
Nature of Avadhijnana: According to Jain philosophy, Avadhijnana is the knowledge of material objects without the aid of senses or mind, arising directly from the soul. For celestial beings (devas) and infernal beings (narakis), it is bhavapratyaya avadhijnana (born from their state). For animals (tiryanchas) and humans, it is kshayopashamajanya avadhijnana (arising from the partial destruction and suppression of karmas), with six specific types.
Avadhijnana in Different Beings:
- Humans and animals that attain celestial states due to accumulated merit are born with Avadhijnana. The paper notes that the knowledge of devas is predominantly Avadhijnana, with less discussion on their Mati and Shruta.
- Manahparyaya and Kevala are exclusively attained by humans, highlighting the rarity and superiority of human birth. While devas are generally considered to have higher knowledge, their access to the highest spiritual knowledge is not depicted.
- Devas can witness events in the human world, like the Panch Kalyanakas of Tirthankaras or human devotees, through their Avadhijnana, akin to CCTV cameras, and can even descend. This is compared to the "avatar" concept in Hindu mythology.
- Narakis, despite being born with Avadhijnana, use it differently. They witness their past deeds like CCTV footage during their suffering in hell, finding some solace in foreseeing future births. This is psychologically grounded. Their Mati and Shruta knowledge is almost non-existent.
- The concept of Avadhijnana in tiryanchas is a Jain specialty. The detailed description of the animal kingdom through fourteen categories of margaṇasthana is unique to Jain texts. Some animals are depicted to reach the fourth or fifth stages of spiritual development. However, the specialized sensory powers of various animals and the Shruta and Avadhijnana of conscious five-sensed animals are minimally discussed.
Human-Centric Knowledge Discussion: The paper concludes that the discussion of knowledge across the four states of existence primarily centers on Avadhijnana for devas, narakis, and tiryanchas. Mati and Shruta are not discussed for these beings, and Manahparyaya and Kevala are outside their scope. Thus, the overall knowledge discussion is predominantly human-centric.
Jatismaran and Avadhijnana: Considering their subjects and recipients, Jatismaran appears to be self-focused, while Avadhijnana is generally about others. This suggests that Jatismaran might be a preliminary stage of Avadhijnana.
Modern Interpretation of Avadhijnana: Avadhijnana provides knowledge of material objects within a limited scope. In the scientific age, advancements in technology allow for detailed knowledge of near and far objects through instruments like microscopes, telescopes, Google, and CCTV cameras. Photography of celestial bodies and scientific discoveries have made numerous gadgets available. While spiritual purification leads to Avadhijnana, science offers tools that provide similar knowledge without ethical or meditative practices. The paper links the Jain concept of infinite potential within an atom to atomic energy. Scientific discoveries used for human welfare can be termed "good Avadhi" (suavdhi), while destructive applications are "bad Avadhi" (kuavdhi).
Limitations of Scientific Knowledge: Despite technological advancements, all knowledge acquired through instruments is limited to material objects with specific qualities (color, smell, taste, sound). The inner states of conscious beings remain beyond the purview of science. The paper draws parallels between the spiritual discipline for Jain Avadhijnana and the intense focus and detachment from worldly pleasures required of researchers.
Avadhijnana in the Fifth Era: The Jain concept suggests the possibility of Avadhijnana in the current, fifth era (panchamara). Scientific discoveries are expanding the scope and accessibility of Avadhijnana, moving it from a purely spiritual realm into a more empirical domain.

(6) Detailed Discussion of Manahparyayajnana (Telepathy):

Nature of Manahparyayajnana: Manahparyayajnana is the knowledge of the thoughts and mental states of others. Conscious beings contemplate objects and ideas through their minds, which adopt different forms (paryayas) corresponding to the subject of thought. Manahparyayajnana directly perceives these mental forms, enabling one to infer what another is thinking. It has two types: Rijumati Manahparyayajnana (straightforward mental knowledge) and Vipulamati Manahparyayajnana (extensive mental knowledge).
Scientific Disagreement on the Mind: Scientists themselves disagree on the nature of the mind. Some believe it is not an independent entity but rather a product of various brain centers that control emotions. Others have established psychology based on mental processes. Jain philosophers also hold differing views, considering the mind as atomic, all-pervading (vibhu), or of intermediate size. Modern disagreements about the mind are mirrored in Jain thought.
English Equivalents and their Limitations: The English translations for Manahparyayajnana are "telepathy" or "mental knowledge." The latter is considered more accurate, as telepathy often refers to a specific mental faculty.
Parallels with Modern Psychology: Similar to Avadhijnana, the paper suggests that Manahparyayajnana can be related to modern psychology, particularly concepts like "conscious mind" and "subconscious mind," which bear resemblance to the Jain concepts of "inner self" (antarātmā) and "outer self" (bahirātmā). The "superconscious mind" could be equated with paramatma.
Hypnosis and Mental Patterns: Hypnotism, a method of inducing altered states of consciousness, allows for understanding mental patterns. This brings modern psychology closer to Manahparyayajnana.
Discrepancies in Philosophical Treatment: The paper notes certain lacunae in the philosophical discussion of Manahparyayajnana. While considered "subtle" compared to Avadhijnana, mentions of knowing thoughts through Manahparyayajnana are scarce in narrative literature. Notably, Lord Mahavir's knowledge of his mother's thoughts through Avadhijnana and his knowledge of the Ganadharas' (chief disciples') questions through Kevalajnana do not involve Manahparyayajnana, despite its proximity to mental processes.
The Soul as the Seat of Knowledge: Theoretically, Manahparyayajnana resides in the soul. Jainism does not assign significant importance to the mind over the senses. If the mind were paramount, Manahparyayajnana would be attributed to the mind. However, knowledge is a quality of the soul. The paper questions why Manahparyayajnana, given the perceived lesser importance of the mind, is placed fourth in the sequence, so close to perfect soul-knowledge (Kevalajnana). Later commentators also differ on the nature of objects known through the mind.
Focus on Others' Thoughts: The emphasis in Manahparyayajnana is on knowing the thoughts of others, with little mention of understanding one's own mental states.
Unspoken Knowledge and Spiritual Progression: There are no accounts in philosophical or narrative texts of Manahparyayajnanis revealing the thoughts they know. The presence of this knowledge can only be ascertained by another Manahparyayajnani or a Kevalin. The paper suggests that Manahparyayajnana can serve as a "touchstone" for spiritual progress, a witness to the individual's journey towards Kevalajnana.

(6) Detailed Discussion of Kevalajnana (Omniscience):

Nature of Kevalajnana: Based on the Tattvartha Sutra, Kevalajnana is described in later philosophical texts as knowledge that extends to all material and non-material substances, all their states, and all three times (past, present, future). It is the highest spiritual state, and its possessor is called "Sarvajna" (omniscient). A possessor of Kevalajnana is invariably eligible for liberation.
Critique of the Hierarchy of Knowledge: The paper questions the notion that Kevalajnana is "highest" simply because it occurs without the aid of senses and mind, while Mati and Shruta are "worldly" because they depend on senses and mind. It argues that progress in knowledge is impossible without Mati and Shruta. Liberation is as real as bondage, and establishing a hierarchy among knowledge types is inappropriate.
Logical Contradictions in Omniscience: The idea that an omniscient being knows and sees the entire universe, including the non-universe (aloka), raises logical issues. If aloka is also perceived, its non-universal nature might be compromised. Knowing both material and immaterial things could lead to the dissolution of the concept of immateriality. Knowledge of all past, present, and future, including the beginning and end of creation, would imply determinism.
Resolving Logical Issues: To avoid these logical impossibilities, later thinkers clarify that a Kevalin knows the "determined as determined" and the "undetermined as undetermined." Jain causality explains events through a combination of karma, effort, nature, time, and destiny. Predetermined knowledge of all events before their occurrence is not accepted within this framework.
Modern Interpretation of Sarvajna: The concept of Sarvajna has been debated in philosophical texts. Modern Jain scholars like Pt. Sukhlalji and Dr. Sagarmal Jain interpret "Sarvajna" as one who knows everything relatively, does not adhere to linguistic specifics, and witnesses desires, aversion, happiness, and sorrow with detachment.
Modern Interpretation of Kevalajnana: A logical interpretation of Kevalajnana in the modern context is possible. The word "Kevala" fundamentally means "one" or "specific." In the current age of specialized knowledge, where various scientific disciplines are flourishing, it is impossible for anyone to know everything across all times. Knowledge can be acquired in greater depth within specific fields. Therefore, "Kevala jnana" is highly appropriate in the context of specialized knowledge, aligning with the etymological meaning of "Kevala."

(7) Concepts of Kumati, Kushruta, Kuavadhi (Bad Mati, Bad Shruta, Bad Avadhi):

Viparyaya (Perversion): The sutra "Matishrutavadhyo viparyayashcha" states that Mati, Shruta, and Avadhi are knowledge according to worldly convention, but in spiritual context, these knowledge-related states are ignorance for the mithyadrushti (one with wrong vision) and knowledge for the samyagdrushti (one with right vision).
Critique of Applying Criteria to Matijnana: The paper argues that applying the criterion of samyagdrushti and mithyadrushti to sensory knowledge (Matijnana) is inappropriate. For individuals with functioning senses, the perception of sensory data is largely similar, with only minor differences. Labeling the perceptions of some as "good perception" (sumati-bodh) and others as "bad perception" (kumati-bodh) is ethically questionable. Sensory perception is the same whether one is oriented towards the world or liberation, and individuals are not perpetually fixed in either state.
Universal Nature of Sensory Perception: Since sensory perception is universal and timeless, it is inappropriate to label it as good or bad based on spiritual criteria. For example, the color of a crow is black and the taste of sugar is sweet, regardless of whether the observer is oriented towards liberation or the world. Whether sensory experiences lead to attachment or detachment is subjective. Therefore, sensory knowledge cannot be termed "Kumati."
Universality of Shruta: The same argument applies to Shruta knowledge. Whether in written or oral form, Shruta knowledge is uniform. How one interprets it depends on the individual. Thus, truthfulness or untruthfulness is not inherent in the knowledge itself. However, Shruta knowledge that is false, misleading, or leads to moral degradation can be called mithyajnan or kushruta. The paper points out that many texts listed as mithya shruta by the Nandi Sutra provide practically useful knowledge. Even historically and geographically descriptive texts studied in academic curricula cannot be called mithya shruta, whether studied by the mithyadrushti or samyagdrushti.
Literature and Jain Tradition: Poetry, biographies, and Puranas often blend truth with imagination and the extraordinary. This applies to Jain narrative literature as well. There is no fundamental difference between literature written by Jains and non-Jains. Some Ardhamagadhi texts also rely on narrative and illustrative examples. This observation led the Nandi Sutra to include the important comment about mithya shruta. This suggests that labeling knowledge as "good" or "bad" is not appropriate.
Universal Acceptance of Scriptures: Philosophers from Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist traditions consider their foundational scriptures as Shruta and as conducive to liberation. Therefore, the pluralistic Jain philosophy should not exclusively claim its scriptures as leading to liberation while dismissing others. The paper references the concept of "anyalingasidha" (one of another sect attaining liberation) in texts like Uttaradhyayana and Nandi, suggesting a broader perspective in early Jainism. However, later literature indicates that spiritual merit, irrespective of sect affiliation, does not lead to liberation without "Jainization." Jain Ramayanas and Mahbharatas are cited as examples.
The Concept of Kuavadhi: Avadhijnana is primarily related to spiritual progress and knowledge acquired by the soul, thus the possibility of "bad Avadhi" (kuavadhi) is inherently unlikely. The paper speculates that the concept of kuavadhi might have emerged from the practices of ascetics in other traditions who possessed Avadhijnana. The author suggests that the Patanjali Yoga Sutras, which preceded Umaswati's work, described powers like "knowing others' minds" and immediate sensory perceptions through yoga. The Jain tradition, perhaps hesitant to completely reject the Avadhijnana attained by non-Jains, might have categorized it as kuavadhi, especially when associated with mithyadrushti. This might explain the scarcity of kuavadhi examples in Jain narrative literature compared to examples of "good Avadhi" (suavadhi) practiced by Jain monks.
Yadruchopalanbhi and Unmattavat: Following the sutra on Kumati, Kushruta, and Kuavadhi, the Tattvartha Sutra introduces the terms yadruchopalanbhi (accidental attainment) and unmattavat (like the intoxicated). The paper suggests these terms likely refer to the hallucinatory and transient visions induced by intoxicants, which were later linked to kuavadhi and the distinction between samyagdrushti and mithyadrushti.
Mati, Shruta, and Avadhi in Relation to Samyagdrushti and Mithyadrushti: Ultimately, the paper concludes that the concepts of Mati, Shruta, and Avadhi are related to mithyadrushti and samyagdrushti. It emphasizes the importance of correctly understanding these terms. Individuals possessing general discretion, logical reasoning, and impartiality can be considered samyagdrushti, even if they are unfamiliar with Jain philosophical concepts or terminologies. Removing prejudice might place these three types of knowledge within the realm of "ethics" rather than solely "spirituality."

(B) Narrow Thoughts Related to Jain Epistemology:

Karmic Obscuration and Knowledge: When world mysteries are revealed on channels like Discovery, the concept of jnanavaraniya karma (knowledge-obscuring karma) comes to mind, as Jainism posits that knowledge manifests when obstructions are removed.
Importance of Bhāvanā (Contemplation/Emotion): Alongside the discussion of knowledge, Jain philosophy, particularly its ethics, gives equal importance to bhāvanā (contemplation or emotional state). This can be equated to modern terms like IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and EQ (Emotional Quotient). The paper cites examples like Muni Shivabhuti, who uttered "Tushamasha" (a mantra) and achieved spiritual purity, and Pratyeka Buddhas, who attained Kevalajnana through contemplation, highlighting the significance of EQ in Jain epistemology.
Lord Mahavir's Life and Knowledge: Lord Mahavir's life, dedication to knowledge, spiritual practice, and teachings are well-documented. Despite his strong grasp, his period of formal education is clearly mentioned. His life exemplifies the harmonious integration of all five types of knowledge, a blend of IQ and EQ. This suggests that formal education and spirituality are complementary.
Contemporary Thought in Agamas: A review of the subjects contained within the Agamas reveals that contemporary thoughts relevant to formal education are present. Texts like Pannavana, Jivabhigama, Suryaprajnapti, Gommatasara, Dravyasangraha, and Panchastikaya are cited. It is suggested that Lord Mahavir might have anticipated later Acharyas to further strengthen this worldly knowledge through observation and examination.
Chaturvidha Buddhi (Four Types of Intellect): The Agamas, like Nayadhammakaha and Upadesapada, describe "four types of intellect": innate intelligence, learned intelligence, intelligence gained through practiced skills, and intelligence gained through experience over age. The Tattvartha Sutra and its commentators do not incorporate this classification within the five types of knowledge. The paper commends the Nandi Sutra's efforts in this regard.
Dharmadhyana (Religious Contemplation) and Science: Jainism outlines four types of dharmadhyana: agyavichaya (contemplation on commands/scriptures), apaya-vichaya (contemplation on causes and effects), vipaka-vichaya (contemplation on consequences), and sansthana-vichaya (contemplation on forms/structures). The paper finds that these contemplative practices align with the requirements of scientific inquiry. Agyavichaya involves compiling research from previous scientists. Apaya-vichaya involves considering the faulty outcomes of adopting new hypotheses. Vipaka-vichaya involves predicting and experimenting with potential conclusions from new research methods. Sansthana-vichaya involves understanding the nature of the world, which is the ultimate goal of all scientific research.
Scientific Methodology in Agamas: The paper highlights the presence of scientific research methodologies in some Ardhamagadhi Agamas, such as the experiment described in the parable of the moat in Nayadhammakaha, which proves the principles of substance, quality, and state through water purification. The direct experiments conducted in the presence of King Prashni and the Jaina ascetic Keshi Shraman to understand the nature of the soul are recorded in the Rajapraishniya.
Decline of Experimentalism: While early Greek philosophy led to science, similar possibilities are seen in many Agamas. However, over time, Jain tradition saw a decline in experimentalism, with a greater emphasis on ethics and spirituality, resulting in a lesser production of literature useful for life.

Conclusion and Future Research:

The paper emphasizes that the five types of knowledge in Jainism are highly significant and can be discussed from various perspectives. Future research could focus on historical changes and developments in Jain epistemology, explore new issues from social and feminist viewpoints, and analyze the metaphysical framework. While Jain knowledge discussions are inherently spiritual, the paper suggests identifying which aspects fall under ethical values and which are purely spiritual. In this third millennium of scientific explosion, a modern critique of these five knowledge types is possible.

The author acknowledges that only certain points have been touched upon, and deeper exploration could lead to independent projects. The paper hopes these observations will guide future discussions.

New Interpretation of the Five Types of Knowledge:

The paper proposes a life-guiding framework for these five knowledge types:

Birth to 5 years: Primarily sensory knowledge (matijnana), with a strong tendency to accept, organize, and react.
School/College Education: Primarily scriptural knowledge (shrutajnana).
30-40 years: Understanding the vast horizons of knowledge and personal limits of knowledge acquisition.
50-60 years: Introspection and focusing on one's own mental states (manahparyaya).
60-70 years onwards: Affirming a sense of oneness (ekatva) and steadfastly following a chosen path in spiritual, social, or artistic pursuits, culminating in a state of "Kevala" (singular unity).

If desired, these five knowledge types can illuminate our lifestyle, which might be the true meaning of "samyaktva" (right perspective).