Tarkamrutam - Book Summary | JainGPT

This document is a summary of the Jain text "Tarkamrutam" by Jagadīśa Tarkālaṁkāra, with a commentary called "Vivṛti" by Jiban Krishna Tarkatirtha. The book was published by The Asiatic Society in 1974.

The text delves into various philosophical and logical concepts within the Navya-Nyaya school of Indian philosophy. Here's a breakdown of the key topics covered, based on the provided pages:

1. Introduction and Invocation:

The text begins with invocations to deities and spiritual leaders, a common practice in Indian philosophical works.
It sets the stage for a discussion on logic and philosophy.

2. Philosophical Foundation and Methodology:

The preface highlights that "Tarkamṛta" is a treatise on Navya-Nyāya (Neo-logic), analyzing the categories (Padārtha) accepted by this school.
The commentary by Jiban Krishna Tarkatirtha is noted for its depth and ability to elucidate complex themes.
The text emphasizes the importance of understanding fundamental principles to achieve spiritual liberation (moksha), citing Vedic injunctions like "Ātmā vā are draṣṭavyaḥ" (The Self, indeed, is to be seen).
It establishes the need for studying categories (padārtha nirūpaṇam) as a means to understand the self and its distinction from the non-self, which is crucial for contemplation (manana) and meditation (nididhyāsana).

3. Categories of Reality (Padārtha):

General Classification: Padārthas are broadly divided into two categories: bhāva (that which exists) and abhāva (that which does not exist).
- Bhāva: This is further classified into six types: dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (action), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity), and samavāya (inherence).
  - Dravyas are identified as nine: pṛthivī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vāyu (air), ākāśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space/direction), ātman (self), and manas (mind).
  - Qualities like dravyatva (substance-ness), guṇatva (quality-ness), and karmaṇyatva (action-ness) are identified as jātis (universals), while sāmānyatva (generality-ness) and others are upādhis (accidental properties).
- Abhāva: This is considered the opposite of bhāva. The text discusses the philosophical debate around the reality of abhāva.

4. Properties of Substances (Dravyas) and Their Classification:

Substance Categories: The text details the qualities associated with each of the nine substances:
- Earth (Pṛthivī): Possesses 14 qualities, including form, taste, smell, touch, number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, gravity, fluidity, and saṁskāra (potentiality).
- Water (Ap): Possesses 14 qualities, excluding smell.
- Fire (Tejas): Possesses 11 qualities, excluding smell and fluidity.
- Air (Vāyu): Possesses 9 qualities, excluding smell, fluidity, and gravity.
- Ether (Ākāśa): Possesses 6 qualities: sound, number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, and disjunction.
- Time (Kāla) and Space (Dik): Possess 5 qualities: number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, and disjunction.
- Self (Ātman): Possesses 14 qualities, including number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, intellect (buddhi), pleasure (sukha), pain (duḥkha), desire (icchā), aversion (dveṣa), effort (prayatna), merit (dharma), demerit (adharma), and saṁskāra.
- Mind (Manas): Possesses 8 qualities: number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, and saṁskāra.
- God (Īśvara): Possesses 8 qualities: knowledge, desire, action, number, and others.
Perfection vs. Imperfection: Substances are categorized as either paramāṇu (atomic) or sāvayava (having parts). Ether, time, self, and space are considered vibhū (all-pervading). Mind is atomic.
Temporality: Substances with parts (sāvayava) are anitya (impermanent), while the atomic and all-pervading ones are nitya (eternal).
Divisions of Substances with Parts: These are further divided into body, senses, and objects. The text details which element constitutes which sense organ (e.g., smell belongs to earth, sight to fire).
The Self: The self is divided into jīvātman (individual soul) and paramātman (supreme self or God). Individual souls are distinct in each body, capable of bondage and liberation. God is distinct.

5. Causation (Utpatti Prakriyā):

Cause: A cause is defined as an invariable antecedent cause that is not otherwise accounted for (anan'yathāsiddha niyata pūrvavartti kāraṇam).
Three Types of Causes:
- Samavāyi-kāraṇa (Material Cause): That in which the effect inheres (e.g., atoms for dyads, clay for a pot).
- Asamavāyi-kāraṇa (Non-material Cause): That which is connected within the material cause (e.g., conjunction of atoms for dyads, form of clay for the form of a pot).
- Nimitta-kāraṇa (Instrumental Cause): Any cause other than the material and non-material causes (e.g., God for dyads, a stick for a pot).
Cause of All Things: The text lists general causes for all effects: God, His knowledge, desire, actions, absence (prāgabhāva), time, direction, and destiny (adṛṣṭa).
Production Process: The text explains how dyads (dva'yaṇuka) are produced from the conjunction of atoms, then trasareṇu (triads) from three dyads, and so on, leading to the formation of larger substances.

6. Perception and Inference (Pramāṇa):

Perception (Pratyakṣa): For perceptible substances, direct perception is the means of knowledge. For imperceptible ones, inference is used.
Inference (Anumāna): The text explains the structure of inference, involving a thesis (pakṣa), reason (hetu), predicate (sādhya), example (dṛṣṭānta), and the knowledge derived from them.
- Examples are given for inferring the existence of dyads and atoms from the perception of triads.
- The text discusses how substances like sound and touch are inferred from their qualities and how this leads to the inference of ether and air respectively.
- The causal role of time and space in producing effects like priority and posteriority is discussed, suggesting their inferential nature.
- The existence of the Self is established through its qualities like consciousness and the experience of pleasure and pain.
- God's existence is inferred from the designed nature of the universe (cosmological argument).
- The existence of mind is inferred from the perception of mental states like pleasure and pain.

7. Qualities (Guṇa):

Classification of Qualities: Qualities are divided into special qualities (viśeṣa guṇa) and general qualities (sāmānya guṇa).
- Special Qualities: These include form, taste, smell, touch, fluidity, desire, aversion, effort, pleasure, pain, knowledge, and others that are unique to specific substances.
- General Qualities: These include number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, gravity, fluidity, saṁskāra, merit, demerit, and sound.
Distribution of Qualities: The text details which qualities reside in which substances.
Production of Qualities: The text discusses how certain qualities are produced through processes like pāka (combustion) or are inherent.

8. Action (Karma):

Five Types of Actions: Upward movement (utkṣepaṇa), downward movement (avakṣepaṇa), contraction (ākuñcana), expansion (prasāraṇa), and movement (gamana).
Location of Actions: Actions are said to reside in earth, water, fire, air, and mind.
Perceptibility: Actions that are imperceptible are inferred, while perceptible ones are directly known.

9. Generality (Sāmānya):

Three Types of Generality: Pervasive (vyāpaka), Pervaded (vyāpya), and Pervasive-Pervaded (vyāpya-vyāpaka).
- Sattā (existence) is considered pervasive.
- Ghaṭatva (pot-ness) and similar universals are pervaded.
- Qualities like dravyatva (substance-ness) are pervasive-pervaded.
Definition of Universals: Universals are defined as eternal, multi-located entities that possess a distinct characteristic.
Universals are Eternal: The text asserts that universals are inherently eternal.
Perceptibility of Universals: Universals are classified as perceptible or imperceptible based on whether they are associated with perceptible or imperceptible substances.

10. Particularity (Viśeṣa):

Definition: Viśeṣas are the ultimate distinguishing characteristics that reside in eternal substances.
Location: They are found in eternal substances like atoms, ether, time, space, and the self.
Inferred Existence: The need for viśeṣas is argued to explain the distinctness of atoms during the cosmic dissolution (pralaya).
Non-eternal Substances: Substances with parts are not considered to have viśeṣas as their distinctness is evident from their constituent parts.

11. Inherence (Samavāya):

Definition: Samavāya is defined as an eternal relation that connects two entities which are different from each other but cannot exist independently.
Types of Relations: The text distinguishes between different types of relations, including svabhāva-sambandha (natural relation), samyoga (conjunction), and samavāya (inherence).
Perception of Inherence: The perception of inherence is discussed, with different schools of thought holding varying views on whether it is directly perceived or inferred.

12. Non-existence (Abhāva):

Two Types of Non-existence: Mutual Non-existence (anyonyābhāva) and Relative Non-existence (saṁsaṛgābhāva).
- Relative Non-existence: This is further divided into prior absence (prāgabhāva), subsequent absence (dhvaṁsābhāva), and absolute absence (atyantābhāva).
Perception of Non-existence: Non-existence is generally perceived through the absence of the object in a context where its presence is expected (yogyānupalabdhi).

13. Valid Knowledge (Pramā):

Four Types of Valid Knowledge: Perception (pratyakṣa), Inference (anumiti), Analogy (upamiti), and Verbal Testimony (śābda).
Means of Valid Knowledge (Pramāṇa): These correspond to the four types of valid knowledge: perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony.
Types of Perception: Perception is divided into indeterminate perception (nirvikalpaka) and determinate perception (savikalpaka).

14. Inference (Anumāna) in Detail:

Types of Inference: The text distinguishes between inferences that establish only concomitance (kevalānvayi), inferences that establish only difference (kevalavyatireki), and inferences that establish both concomitance and difference (anvaya-vyatireki).
Conditions for Valid Inference: The text outlines five conditions for a valid middle term (hetu) in anvaya-vyatireki inference: presence in the subject (pakṣa-vṛttitva), presence in similar cases (sapaka-satva), absence in dissimilar cases (vipakṣa-vyāvṛttatva), non-contradiction (avādhitatva), and absence of counter-inference (asat-pratipakṣatva).
Fallacies of Inference (Hetvābhāsa): The text details five fallacies of inference: ambiguity (savyabhicāra), contradiction (viruddha), counter-inference (sat-pratipakṣa), unestablished reason (asiddha), and fallacious condition (sopādhika).

15. Analogy (Upamāna):

Process of Analogy: This involves recognizing similarity between a known object and an unknown one, often triggered by a verbal statement describing the similarity.

16. Verbal Testimony (Śābda):

Source of Testimony: Valid verbal testimony comes from reliable sources (āpta).
Components of Verbal Testimony: The text explains the role of words (pada), their meanings (artha), expectancy (ākāṅkṣā), suitability (yogyatā), proximity (āsatti), and intention (tātparya) in understanding verbal statements.

17. Verbal Application (Vṛtti) and Sentence Structure:

Types of Verbal Application: Śakti (primary meaning) and lakṣaṇā (secondary meaning).
Sentence Analysis: The text analyzes the grammatical structure of Sanskrit sentences and how different verbal forms and affixes convey meaning, including tense, mood, and case relations.

In essence, "Tarkamrutam" is a detailed exploration of the fundamental categories of reality, the means of valid knowledge, and the intricacies of linguistic understanding within the framework of Navya-Nyaya philosophy. It aims to provide a rigorous analytical approach to understanding the world and ultimately, the self.