Tap

This comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Tap" by H. U. Pandya, published by Z_Parshvanath_Vidyapith_Swarna_Jayanti_Granth_012051.pdf, draws from the provided text.

The text explores the multifaceted concept of "Tap" (asceticism, austerity, penance) within Indian religious traditions, with a particular focus on its Vedic and Jain interpretations.

1. Etymology and Vedic Understanding of Tap:

• The word "Tap" originates from the Sanskrit root "tap," which has meanings related to burning, suffering, and even splendor or power.
• The Rigveda uses "tap" in all these senses. While Saayana clarifies the meanings of "burning" and "suffering," the "splendor" aspect can be inferred from phrases like "tapojann Rishi" (Rishis possessing power through Tap) and the creation of order and truth from "tapas."
• The Rigveda also associates "tap" with pain, destruction, causing heat, purification (as a purifying agent), illumination, and heating. All these meanings are linked to the practice of asceticism.
• In the Vedic period, "Tap" was understood in two primary forms:
  • Yajna-roopa Tap: Tap performed through sacrifices and rituals.
  • Chandrayanaadi Vrata-roopa Tap: Tap observed through vows like Chandrayana (a lunar fast).

2. Reverence for Tap in Indian Literature:

• Texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, and Buddhacharita express great respect for "Tap."
• The Ramayana considers "Tap" supreme and other pleasures as futile. It even links the practice of "Tap" to the four Yugas (epochs), stating that in the Satya Yuga, only Brahmins practiced it, followed by Kshatriyas, then Vaishyas, and finally Shudras in the Kali Yuga.
• The Mahabharata and other scriptures highlight how deities like Brahma, celestial sages (Devarshis), Brahmins, and royal sages (Rajrishis) attained their goals through rigorous "Tap."
• "Tap" is described as purifying, the source of creation, sustenance, and destruction for the divine, leading to divine favor, strength, and supernatural powers. It also facilitates movement to higher realms like heaven and the attainment of detachment, ultimately leading to God-realization.
• The intense penance of ascetics was believed to emit smoky fire from their heads, causing the earth to tremble, indicating the immense respect for "Tap" in ancient society.

3. Two Streams of Tap:

The text identifies two main streams of "Tap":

• Sharira Kashtaprad Tap (Body-afflicting Tap): This is the more prevalent form described in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and poetry. Examples include:

  • Ramayana: Vishwamitra's thousands of years of penance eating only fruits and roots, Mandakarni Muni subsisting on air in water, Saptajana Rishi eating air every seventh night, Shudrak hanging upside down in a lake, Kumbhakarna enduring five fires in summer, living in the rain, and dwelling in water in winter, Vibhishana standing on one leg reciting scriptures, and Ravana fasting for ten thousand years.
  • Mahabharata: Mentions practices like eating from forests (Shilochhavritti), subsisting on water (Jalahar), eating air (Vayubhojan), the Panchagni Tap (dwelling amidst five fires), standing on one leg, eating withered leaves, raising arms upwards, standing on the tip of the toes.
  • Bhagavata Purana: Mentions practices like drinking water drops on the tip of Kusha grass, performing Kumbhaka (breath retention) for a day or a month, vows for four months, eating only water at the end of seasons, fasting, six-month fasts, dwelling without shelter during rain, and eating rainwater, standing like a tree. Ascetics practicing such severe penance would develop anthills on their bodies, with only sinews and bones remaining, their matted hair becoming a habitat for birds, and grass growing on their bodies.
  • Buddhacharita: Describes practices like Shilochhavritti, subsisting on grass, leaves, water, fruits, roots, and air, dwelling in water, eating food ground by stones, eating food by scraping with teeth, and eating leftover food after guests.
  • Raghuvanśa: Mentions Sita's practice of fixing her gaze on the sun, suggesting the importance of sun-gazing in Kalidasa's time. The Bhagavati Sutra notes that Goshala achieved "Tejoleshya" (lustrous psychic power) through sun-gazing.
  • Kumārasambhava: Parvati performs Agnihotra, Panchagni Tap, dwells in water in winter, lives on rocks in the rain, eats withered leaves, drinks water not meant for consumption, abandons leaf-eating, and stands like a tree.
  • Kirātārjunīyam: Arjuna practices fasting and standing on one leg.
  • Uttara Ramacharita: Describes Shabuk as a "dhumabhoji" (one who eats smoke), which is not mentioned in the Ramayana, indicating the coexistence of both streams.

  These practices can be broadly categorized into:

  • Homa (fire rituals)
  • Pranayama (breath control)
  • Upavasa (fasting)
  • Panchagni, Jalnivasa, etc. (other difficult austerities)

  Jainism rejected Homa and Pranayama due to the harm caused to living beings (fire element and air element, respectively).

• Gyanarupa Tap (Knowledge-based Tap): This school of thought believes that self-realization is possible without bodily suffering. This stream originated in the Upanishadic period.

  • The Mundakopanishad explicitly defines knowledge as "Tap."
  • Bhagavad Gita: Categorizes "Tap" into three types:
    • Sharita Tap (Bodily Tap): Reverence for deities, preceptors, and the wise; purity, simplicity, celibacy, and non-violence.
    • Vachika Tap (Verbal Tap): Truthful, pleasant, beneficial, and non-disturbing speech.
    • Manasika Tap (Mental Tap): Cheerfulness of mind, silence, self-control, and purity of thoughts.
  • The Gita does not include severe austerities like Panchagni Tap in these categories and even criticizes them, stating they harm the divine within the body. The Gita further categorizes these into Sattvic, Rajasic, and Tamasic.
  • The Yoga Bhashya accepts "Tap" that does not obstruct the tranquility of the mind.

4. Arrangement and Evolution of Tap:

• In ancient times, "Tap" was an independent practice. The Kenopanishad mentions it alongside control of the senses (Dama), rituals (Karma), Vedic studies, and knowledge of the Vedas.
• The Mahabharata lists various independent means of "Tap," including virtue, knowledge, sense control, various pranayamas, regulated diet, sacrificial offerings, yoga, self-study, knowledge, charity, self-control, non-violence, truth, practice, and meditation.
• During the time of the Bhagavad Gita, Yajna, Dana, and Tap were considered important for purification and were made mandatory, with a dedicated chapter (Chapter 17) in the Gita for their detailed exposition.

5. Integration of Tap:

Both Vedic and Jain traditions have attempted to integrate "Tap" with other practices:

• Patanjali's Yoga Sutras: While considering Tap and Samadhi as independent means to achieve Siddhi (perfection), he incorporates Tap into Yama (the second limb) and Pranayama into the fourth limb (Pranayama), considering Tap, Swadhyaya (self-study), and Ishvara Pranidhana (devotion to Ishvara) as essential for Samadhi.
• Jain Tradition:
  • The Sthananga Sutra categorizes "Tap" into two main types: Bahya Tap (External Tap) and Abhyantara Tap (Internal Tap).
    • Six External Taps: Anashana (fasting), Avamaudarya (eating less), Vritti Parisankhyana (observing specific conditions for receiving alms), Rasa Parityaga (renunciation of tastes), Vivikta Shayyasana (living in solitude), and Kayaklesha (mortification of the body).
    • Six Internal Taps: Prayashchitta (penance/atonement), Vinaya (humility/respect), Vayavrittya (service), Swadhyaya (self-study), Vyutsarga (renunciation), and Dhyana (meditation).
  • Umaswati in the Tattvartha Sutra, while including "Tap" within the ten limbs of Dharma, also emphasized practicing it according to one's capacity and criticized practices like entering fire as "child-like Tap" leading to influx of karma. He elaborated on the twelve types of Tap, especially the six internal Taps and their sub-types, thereby broadening the meaning of "Tap."
  • Akalaṅka included the Gita's concept of silence (Mauna) within Kayaklesha, deeming it external Tap, which is an interesting point of discussion as silence relates to the mind.
  • The Aupapatika Sutra lists numerous sub-types of the twelve Taps, leading to an expansion of the meaning of "Tap."
  • The text notes a significant difference: in the Vedic tradition, "Tap" is an aspect of Samadhi, while in Jainism, Dhyana (meditation/Samadhi) is an aspect of "Tap." This implies that the meaning of "Tap" in Jainism is considerably broader than in the Vedic tradition.

6. Comparison of Jain Tapas with Vedic Traditions:

The text then compares the twelve types of Jain Taps with Vedic concepts:

• Anashana (Fasting): Both traditions prescribe fasting from "Chaturthabhakta" (eating once in four days) up to six months. The Chaturthabhakta and Ashtamabhakta in Jainism correspond to Chaturkalika and Ashtamakalika in Manusmriti. Akalaṅka includes "ekabhukta" (eating once a day) within Anashana, influenced by Gita and Buddhist views which reject extreme fasting. However, Jainism maintains a deep reverence for fasting, sometimes treating it as an end rather than a means.
• Avamaudarya (Eating Less): This is akin to "Yukta-ahara" (regulated eating) in the Gita. Manu and Ayurveda also advocate moderation in eating. Umaswati describes three stages of Avamaudarya, considering 32 morsels as a full meal. The Aupapatika Sutra suggests five stages (8, 12, 16, 24, and 31 morsels), defining a morsel as the size of a hen's egg. Jainism is considered more liberal. The Aupapatika Sutra also expands Avamaudarya to include "Bhava Avamaudarya" (reduction of emotions like anger, pride, delusion, greed, harsh speech, and conflict), connecting it to mental purity and aligning with the Gita's emphasis on inner purity.
• Vritti Parisankhyana (Observing Specific Conditions): The aim is to curb desires. The Aupapatika Sutra lists 30 sub-types related to vows. Manu Smriti also advises ascetics to remain impartial to receiving alms.
• Rasa Parityaga (Renunciation of Tastes): Umaswati emphasizes the abandonment of intoxicating substances and stimulating foods. Manu Smriti suggests abstaining from common grains and consuming only vegetables, roots, and fruits. While the aim is similar, Jainism appears slightly more liberal.
• Vivikta Shayyasana (Living in Solitude): This refers to a solitary place that doesn't hinder ascetic practice. It can be compared to the Gita's concept of dwelling in a secluded place and the characteristic of detachment in the face of societal interaction. The Aupapatika Sutra incorporates the control of senses, passions, and actions within this, further broadening the scope of external Tap. This aligns with the Gita's concept of detachment from sense objects and the renunciation of desires like anger, greed, and lust. The concept of "Kayayoga" within this, particularly "manoyoga niyantran" (control of mental activity), is similar to the Gita's mental Tap, "vachoyoga niyantran" to verbal Tap, and "kayayoga niyantran" to the characteristic of a stable-minded person (sthitaprajna) described in the Gita, which uses the tortoise as an example. This suggests the Aupapatika Sutra's aim was to move towards internal Tap with a broader and subtler meaning.
• Kayaklesha (Mortification of the Body): Jain ascetics have given various examples of Kayaklesha, some of which overlap with Vedic traditions, such as specific yogic postures (Virasana, Utkudukasana), sun-bathing (Atapana), wearing only a loincloth (Kaupinvan), sleeping exposed to the elements (Niravaran Shayana), and dwelling under trees.

Internal Taps: Umaswati describes sub-types for each of the six internal Taps, further elaborating the meaning. The Aupapatika Sutra provides more sub-types, especially for Prayashchitta (10 types) and Vinaya (7 types), and even more sub-types for these, indicating a continuous expansion of the concept.

• Prayashchitta (Atonement): Akalaṅka provides two meanings: (1) cleansing the mind in actions related to holy people, and (2) cleansing the mind of offenses. The latter meaning is also found in Vedic traditions. The nine sub-types include Alocana (confession), Pratikramana (retracing steps/repentance), and their combination, which are comparable to the Vedic practices of confessing sins and experiencing remorse.
• Vinaya (Humility/Respect): This is a characteristic of respecting teachers and gaining knowledge in Vedic traditions.
• Swadhyaya (Self-study): This is considered verbal Tap in the Gita.
• Vyutsarga (Renunciation): The abandonment of external possessions and faults like anger is also found in Vedic traditions.
• Dhyana (Meditation): The "Prithaktva Vitarka" and "Ekatva Vitarka" within the four types of meditation correspond to "Sampragnata Samadhi" in Patanjali Yoga.

Conclusion:

The author concludes that Jain acharyas, by deeply studying the Vedic tradition without prejudice, have adopted and refined the concepts that align with their own beliefs. They have systematically clarified, purified, and expanded the traditional understanding of "Tap," consciously and logically connecting it with the mind and soul. The text highlights that the description of "Tap" in the Aupapatika Sutra, dating after the Tattvartha Sutra, reflects this ongoing process of refinement.

The bibliography lists the various Sanskrit and Prakrit texts consulted for this comprehensive study of "Tap."