Systems Of Indian Philosophy - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of "The Systems of Indian Philosophy" by Virchand R. Gandhi, based on the provided text:

Overview of the Work:

"The Systems of Indian Philosophy" is a collection of lectures delivered by Virchand R. Gandhi, a prominent Jain scholar and representative, primarily to American audiences around 1894. The book was first published in 1970 by Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, and this is a summary of its content. The lectures aim to present the core ideas of major Indian philosophical schools in a clear and accessible manner, often drawing parallels with Western thought and addressing the questions fundamental to philosophical inquiry.

Key Themes and Gandhi's Approach:

Comprehensive Exposition: Gandhi covers the major schools of Indian philosophy: Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya (and Vaisheshika), Mimamsa, Vedanta, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Accessibility: He strives to make complex philosophical concepts understandable to a non-Indian, non-specialist audience, a skill highly praised in contemporary reviews.
Objective Stance: Despite being a devout Jain, Gandhi aims for impartiality in presenting the various philosophies, though he does engage in critical analysis when he believes a point is misrepresented or a system's tenets are flawed.
Jain Perspective: While presenting other systems, he often subtly contrasts them with Jain principles, especially regarding core questions about the universe, God, the soul, and the laws of life.
Holistic Approach: Gandhi emphasizes that true understanding requires looking at subjects from all standpoints, and that philosophy, religion, and science are interconnected in Indian thought.
Focus on Practical Application: For some systems, particularly Yoga, he highlights the practical aspects and methods for spiritual development.
Nationalistic Undertones: Gandhi also uses these lectures as an opportunity to educate Western audiences about Indian culture and subtly advocate for India's independence and its rich heritage.

Summary of Each Philosophical System as Presented by Gandhi:

Sankhya Philosophy:
- Core Idea: The world is full of three kinds of miseries, and their cessation is the ultimate goal.
- Key Concepts: Introduces Prakriti (primordial matter, an eternal essence) and Purusha (soul, pure consciousness). Prakriti evolves into the universe through the interplay of three qualities (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas). The soul is eternal, distinct from Prakriti, and essentially free, though it experiences apparent bondage due to ignorance.
- Key Tenets: Rejects the idea of creation ex nihilo; emphasizes evolution; accepts a plurality of souls; criticizes the Sankhya view that intellect and self-consciousness are mere products of matter.
- Goal: Liberation (Kaivalya), which is the soul's realization of its distinct nature.
- Criticism: Questions the cause of Prakriti's initial disequilibrium and the materiality of intellect/self-consciousness.
Yoga Philosophy:
- Complement to Sankhya: Yoga largely accepts Sankhya's theoretical framework but is highly practical.
- Core Idea: Suppression of the transformations of the thinking principle (citta-vrtti-nirodha) leads to realization of the Self.
- Key Concepts: Introduces the concept of mind (citta) and its modifications (vrttis). Emphasizes theistic elements (a Supreme God) not present in Sankhya. Outlines an eight-limbed path (Yamas, Niyamas, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi) as the means to achieve liberation (Samadhi/Kaivalya).
- Emphasis: Practical development on physical, psychological, and moral planes is crucial for spiritual progress.
- Powers: Discusses the acquisition of "miraculous powers" through yoga practice, but notes these can be obstacles to true spiritual progress.
Nyaya Philosophy (and Vaisheshika):
- Nyaya: Focuses on logic, reasoning, and the means of acquiring true knowledge. Its aim is to understand sixteen topics leading to liberation (Apavarga).
  - Method: Ojective (naming), Definition (differentiation), Examination.
  - Means of Knowledge: Perception (Pratyaksha), Inference (Anumana), Comparison (Upamana), and Testimony (Shabda).
  - Objects of Knowledge: Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, faults, transmigration, fruits of action, pain, and emancipation.
- Vaisheshika: Provides the analytical demonstration of the universe, building upon Nyaya's method.
  - Core Idea: Final liberation follows the right understanding of things, categorized into seven ultimately six) fundamental categories.
  - Categories: Substance (Dravya), Quality (Guna), Action (Karma), Generality (Samanya), Individuality (Vishesha), Intimate Relation (Samavaya), and Non-existence (Abhava).
  - Substances: Earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul, and mind.
  - Theism: Believes in a personal creator (God) who imparts motion to atoms, leading to the formation of the universe.
Mimamsa:
- Nature: Gandhi considers Mimamsa primarily a system of ritualism rather than philosophy.
- Focus: Interpretation of Vedic rituals and resolution of textual discrepancies, rather than metaphysical inquiry.
Vedanta Philosophy:
- Basis: Rooted in the Upanishads, particularly the dialogue between Uddalaka Aruni and Shwetaketu.
- Key Concepts: Brahman (the Absolute, One Universal Being), Maya (illusion or ignorance that creates the appearance of the world), Atman (the individual soul), and their relationship.
- Shankara's Advaita Vedanta: Brahman is the sole reality, homogeneous, and devoid of qualities. The world and individual souls are ultimately unreal, mere appearances due to Maya. Liberation is the realization of the non-duality of Atman and Brahman.
- Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta: Brahman is the ultimate reality, possessing auspicious qualities. The world and individual souls are real, essential constituents of Brahman's nature (forming its "body"). Liberation is achieved through devotion and attaining Brahman's abode.
- Gandhi's Critique: Points out the contradictions and difficulties in reconciling Upanishadic passages with Shankara's purely idealistic interpretation and highlights the need for a comprehensive understanding rather than selective emphasis.
Buddhism:
- Context: A reaction against the perceived ritualism and caste system of Brahmanism during Buddha's time.
- Core Teachings: The Four Noble Truths: life is suffering, suffering arises from desire (thirst), suffering ceases with the cessation of desire, and the path to cessation is the Noble Eightfold Path (right belief, aspiration, speech, conduct, livelihood, exertion, mindfulness, meditation).
- Key Concepts: Anatta (no-soul), aggregates (skandhas) forming the individual, impermanence (Anicca), Karma, and Nirvana (cessation of suffering, not annihilation).
- Gandhi's Observation: Notes Buddha's agnosticism on the state after death and questions the compatibility of Karma with the doctrine of no-soul, suggesting that sound ethics require sound metaphysics.
Jainism:
- Foundation: Addresses the four fundamental philosophical questions: nature of the universe, God, soul, and the laws of soul's life.
- Universe: Viewed as eternal and non-eternal simultaneously. Eternal as a totality of elements, non-eternal in its changing parts. Rejects creation ex nihilo; the state is created, not substance itself.
- "God": Jainism rejects a creator God in the Abrahamic sense. "God" is understood as the collective spiritual energies inherent in all liberated beings, particularly the perfected souls (Siddhas). Worship is about aspiring to become like this ideal, not receiving favors. Material energies are acknowledged but are subject to fixed laws, not personal deities.
- Soul (Jiva): A substance distinct from matter, eternal, and possessing infinite knowledge, bliss, and perception when fully realized. It is not bound by matter but experiences apparent bondage due to its own karmic actions.
- Rebirth: Explains rebirth not as transmigration of a fixed soul-substance, but as a continuity of karmic forces and tendencies influencing the formation of new bodies/lives. Rejects the idea of the soul becoming flesh.
- Karma: Central doctrine, not fatalistic. Actions (thoughts, words, deeds) create karmic impressions that shape future states. There's agency in mitigating karmic effects through ethical conduct and spiritual discipline.
- Liberation (Moksha/Nirvana): Achieved through the pursuit of Right Belief, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct, leading to an independent, infinitely conscious, blissful state.

Significance of the Work:

"The Systems of Indian Philosophy" is significant for several reasons:

Historical Document: It provides a firsthand account of how Indian philosophy was presented to the West in the late 19th century by a prominent Indian scholar.
Accessible Introduction: It serves as a valuable introduction to the diverse schools of Indian thought for English-speaking readers.
Gandhi's Legacy: It showcases Virchand R. Gandhi's intellectual prowess, his dedication to Jainism, his broad understanding of Indian culture, and his skill as an orator and educator.
Comparative Philosophy: Gandhi's method of comparison and analysis offers insights into the interconnections and distinctions between various philosophical traditions.