Studies In South Indian Jainism - Book Summary

This is a comprehensive summary of the book "Studies in South Indian Jainism" by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao, published in 1922. The book is divided into two parts: "South Indian Jainism" by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, and "Andhra Karnata Jainism" by B. Seshagiri Rao.

Overall Scope:

The book aims to trace the history, influence, and contributions of Jainism in South India, particularly in the Tamil, Andhra, and Karnāta regions. It highlights the challenges in reconstructing this history due to the scarcity of early records and the often partisan nature of available sources, primarily relying on Tamil literature, inscriptions, and traditions. The authors acknowledge that their conclusions are often tentative due to the fragmented nature of the evidence.

Part 1: South Indian Jainism (by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar)

This part meticulously details the journey and impact of Jainism in the Tamil-speaking regions.

Introduction: Ayyangar emphasizes the multifaceted nature of Indian culture, acknowledging the contributions of various religions, including Jainism, to its development. He laments the obscurity into which Jainism has fallen but asserts the permanence of its contributions. He also points out the limitations of available historical data, emphasizing the need for further research and the tentative nature of his conclusions.
Early History of Jainism:
- Sources: Ayyangar discusses the reliance on inscriptions and vernacular literature (Tamil, Telugu, Canarese) for understanding Jain history. He acknowledges the contributions of early Oriental scholars but cautions against accepting their conclusions without critical examination, especially regarding the infancy of epigraphy and linguistic barriers.
- Origin of Jainism: He addresses the debate surrounding Jainism's origin, particularly the theory that it was an offshoot of Buddhism. He presents the arguments of scholars like Weber and Lassen who suggested this link based on similarities between the two faiths, but then refutes these theories, drawing on the work of Hoernle and Jacobi. The book argues that both Jainism and Buddhism emerged from a protest against Brahminical exclusiveness and were essentially monastic organizations.
- Mahāvīra: Mahāvīra is presented not as the founder but as a reformer of an ancient faith, identified as the 24th Tirthankara. His life and ministry are described, noting the overlap in his geographical area of influence with that of the Buddha.
- North Indian Jainism: The early spread of Jainism in North India is traced through the time of Asoka and Kharavela, noting its prominence in Kalinga. The book observes the decline of Jainism in the North due to the rise of Buddhism and resurgent Brahminism after the 7th century.
- Mahāvīra's Disciples: The text highlights the role of Mahāvīra's disciples in spreading Jainism, particularly Bhadrabāhu, who is credited with leading a significant Jain migration to the South.
The Jain Migration to the South:
- Bhadrabāhu and Chandragupta Maurya: This chapter focuses on the legendary migration led by Bhadrabāhu, the last Sruta Kevali, from North to South India, triggered by a severe famine. It links this event with Chandragupta Maurya, suggesting he abdicated his throne, became a Jain ascetic, and died at Sravana Belgola. The authors present evidence supporting Chandragupta's Jain affiliation and his southern journey, citing inscriptions and scholarly opinions, while acknowledging debates about the exact timeline.
- Jain Church and Sects: The chapter delves into the schisms within Jainism, leading to the formation of the Digambara and Svetambara sects. It outlines the differing traditions regarding the cause and timing of this division, often attributed to the famine and differing interpretations of ascetic rules, particularly regarding clothing. The sub-sects within both major divisions are also briefly mentioned.
Jains in the Tamil Land:
- Paucity of Information: Ayyangar notes the scarcity of early epigraphical records for Jainism in the Tamil region, forcing a reliance on Tamil literature.
- Tamil Literature Periods: Tamil literature is divided into three periods: Sangam, Saiva Nāyanārs & Vaishnava Ālvārs, and Modern. The works from each period shed light on Jain activities.
- Sangam Age: The debate surrounding the dating of the Sangam Age is discussed, with tentative acceptance of the 2nd century AD for the last Sangam. The author explores the significance of traditions related to the Sangams, the geography of ancient Tamil lands (like the submergence of Kumari land), and the dating of key figures like Tolkāppiyar.
- Kural and its Author: Strong arguments are presented for the Jain origin of the author of the Kural, Tiruvalluvar, citing specific verses and the traditional identification of the author with Kunda Kunda (Elacharya). The author's cosmopolitan teachings and the work's influence are noted.
- Jain Influence on Tamil Literature: The chapter highlights the significant role of Jains in shaping early Tamil literature, particularly through didactic works like Kural and Nāladiyār, and major epics like Silappadikāram, Manimekalai (though primarily Buddhist, it offers insights into Jain presence), and Chintamani. The Jains are credited with infusing Aryan thought into Tamil literature and fostering its development.
- Nigranthas in the Academic Age: The text describes the societal position of the Nigranthas (Jains) during the Sangam period, noting their monasteries, nunneries, and worship practices. Madura is identified as a chief center of Jainism. The popularity of Jainism is attributed to its simpler worship, opposition to Brahminical rites, and strong community organization.
- The Kalabhra Period and Jainism: The Kalabhra invasion and rule in the Tamil country are discussed, with a strong connection made between the Kalabhras and Jainism. The text suggests the Kalabhras embraced Jainism upon their arrival and persecuted Saiva saints, indicating a period of Jain zenith. The composition of Nāladiyār is placed within this period.
- Revival of Brahminism and Decline of Jainism: The period of Saiva Nāyanārs and Vaishnava Ālvārs (from the 6th century AD) is characterized by a revival of Brahminism that severely impacted Jainism. The text describes the persecution of Jains by saints like Tirujñāna Sambandar and Appar, detailing legendary ordeals and conversions that led to the downfall of Jainism's prominent position in the Tamil land around 750 AD. The Vaishnava Alvars are also mentioned as contributing to the decline of Jainism.
Modern Period: Following the Saiva and Vaishnava revival, Jainism entered a period of decadence, with many adherents migrating to Sravana Belgola. Those who remained led obscure lives but continued to produce literature. The chapter touches on the current state of Tamil Jains and their contributions to art and literature. The persecution by idol-breakers during the Muslim conquests is also mentioned.
Jains and Tamil Literature: This chapter specifically focuses on the rich contribution of Jains to Tamil literature, including didactic works (Kural, Nāladiyār, Pazhamozhi Nānūru), major Kavyas (Silappadikaram, Chintamani), and minor epics. It discusses the Jains' role in shaping literary styles, introducing Sanskrit derivatives, and influencing the development of the Telugu literary dialect through the patronage of figures like Nannaya Bhatta.
The Sangam Age: This chapter critically examines the conflicting theories on the dating of the Sangam Age. It scrutinizes the Gajabahu synchronism and the arguments presented by scholars like Kanakasabhai Pillai and S. Krishnaswami Ayyangar. The author proposes alternative interpretations, suggesting a later date for the Sangam, potentially the 5th or 6th century AD, based on internal evidence from Manimekalai and the timeline of the Pallavas and Gurjaras. The chapter also discusses the Mauryan invasion and its potential connection to the Guptas, as well as the emergence of the Pallavas and their relation to the Sangam period.

Part 2: Andhra Karnata Jainism (by B. Seshagiri Rao)

Rao focuses on the presence and influence of Jainism in the Telugu-speaking (Andhra) and Kannada-speaking (Karnāta) regions.

Introduction: Rao states the purpose of this part is to trace Jainism's influence in Andhra and Karnāta districts, acknowledging the obscuration of these traces by later Hindu revivalism. He emphasizes the preliminary nature of his research and the need for more systematic study. He highlights the challenges in Andhra history due to limited records and the influence of North Indian culture on South Indian developments.
The Evidence of Tradition:
- Antiquity and Disguise: Rao posits that Jainism in the Andhra-Karnāta region has ancient roots, possibly predating Buddhism and Mauryan influence. He notes how this ancient past is often disguised in local traditions and monuments, symbolizing a struggle for spiritual achievements. He discusses the Jaina emphasis on meditation and self-purification, likening it to Upanishadic ideals.
- Jaina Settlements and Practices: The text describes Jaina settlements (pallis and bastis), their locations in picturesque natural settings, and their practices, including adherence to Ahimsa. He mentions the Nandyala tradition highlighting Jainism's connection to worldly realism, arts, and sciences, but also the eventual collision with resurgence of Brahminism. The "fantastic" nature of some Jaina practices (like wearing leaves, sweeping paths) is noted, but also the surprising instances of Jaina participation in bloody sacrifices during village foundations, suggesting assimilation of local customs.
- Jainism vs. Vaidica Dharma: Rao highlights instances of mutual tolerance and liberalism between Jainas and followers of Vaidica Dharma, such as the foundation of temples for different deities and Jaina patronage of Hindu rulers. However, he also notes the rise of antagonistic forces like the Kotas, Parichchēdis, and Kakatiyas who actively worked against Jainism, particularly in the Andhra region. The Karnāta region, however, is noted as showing kinder treatment of Jainism.
- Decline of Jaina Influence: The decline is traced to the 11th century AD, with figures like Rāja Rāja Narēndra of Rajahmundry initiating a campaign against Jainism. The influence of Puranic Hinduism and the competitive nature of literary production are seen as contributing factors.
Epigraphia Jainica:
- Discoveries and Distribution: Rao details the epigraphical evidence found across various districts of Andhra and Karnāta, emphasizing that these inscriptions confirm and often illuminate the traditional accounts. He notes the greater number of Jaina epigraphs in the Andhra-Karnāta and Karnāta regions compared to Andhra districts proper, attributing this to the kindlier treatment Jainism received in the former.
- Types of Inscriptions: The inscriptions are categorized into memorial, architectural, votive, iconographic, votive and commendatory, and commendatory.
- Key Findings: The inscriptions reveal the presence of Jaina shrines, the patronage of Jaina foundations by rulers of various dynasties (Eastern Chalukyas, Gangas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagar kings), the existence of prominent Jaina āchāryas and their disciples, and the nature of Jaina polity and scholarship. The record of Saiva persecution against Svetambaras is noted from Srisailam.
- Jainism in Kalinga: The chapter links Jainism to the ancient Kalinga region, referencing the Kharavela inscription and the potential presence of Jainas among the early Andhras and Nāgas. The Kadambas are identified as early Jaina rulers who migrated from North India, leaving traces in place-names and influencing South Indian culture.
- Chalukya Patronage and Cultural Fusion: The role of the Chalukyas is discussed, noting their adoption of Jaina cultural practices and literary styles, including the Champu genre. The authors suggest the Chalukyas' move towards Brahmanism was a strategic cultural fusion, strengthening their political power.
- Jaina Acharyas and Polity: The text highlights the influence of Jaina āchāryas on rulers, citing works like Nītivākyāmritam, which presents a theory of kingship as service to the state. The patronage extended by various dynasties to Jaina scholars and institutions is documented through numerous inscriptions.
Jainism in Andhra-Karnata Literary Tradition:
- Jaina Literary Output: Rao provides a conspectus of Jaina literature found in Sanskrit and Kannada manuscripts, covering Jaina Agama, Puranas, philosophical treatises, Kavyas, rhetoric, logic, ethics, politics, geography, arithmetic, and music.
- Literary Types and Influences: The chapter discusses the development of Jaina literary types like Champu and Yakshagana, noting the significant Canarese (Kannada) influence on early Telugu literature, particularly Nannaya's Mahābhārata. The authors suggest Nannaya adopted the Champu method, which was popular in Jaina literature, as a way to counter Jaina influence with Brahmanic ideas.
- Linguistic Parallels: The influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit on early Telugu and Kannada literary dialects is examined, with examples of shared vocabulary and stylistic features highlighted through comparisons with inscriptions and works like Kaviraja Marga.
- Reinterpretation of Puranic Themes: Jainas are noted for reinterpreting Hindu Puranic and Itihasa material from a Jaina perspective, often emphasizing the heroic elements while integrating Jaina devotion.
- Makers of Jaina Literature: The chapter identifies the āchāryas of Jaina mathas and the scholar-officials of ruling dynasties as the key figures in creating Jaina literature, noting their influence extending even to Muhammadan rulers.

Overall Conclusion of the Book:

"Studies in South Indian Jainism" presents a detailed, though often speculative, account of Jainism's presence and impact in South India. It underscores the pervasive influence of Jainism on literature, culture, and even political patronage, despite its eventual decline due to resurgent Hinduism and internal schisms. The book acknowledges the ongoing nature of historical research and the need for further exploration to fully illuminate this significant, yet often overlooked, chapter of Indian religious and cultural history.