Structure And Functions Of Soul In Jainism

Here is a comprehensive summary of "Structure and Functions of Soul in Jainism" by S.C. Jain, published by Bharatiya Jnanpith, based on the provided text:

Overall Scope and Purpose:

This book, "Structure and Functions of Soul in Jainism" by Dr. S.C. Jain, aims to provide a rational and in-depth analysis of the Jain concept of the soul (jīva). It meticulously explores the nature, structure, and functions of the soul, situating it within the broader context of Jain philosophy, particularly its core tenets of Anekānta (non-absolutism) and Syādvāda (conditional predication). The author also engages in comparative studies, drawing connections and contrasts with various Western and Indian philosophical traditions.

Key Themes and Arguments:

1. Jaina Philosophy as Realistic Pluralism and Dynamism:

   • Jainism is characterized as a dualistic realism, positing soul (jīva) and matter (ajīva) as two distinct, independent, and immutable entities.
   • It is also a realistic pluralism due to the infinite number of individual entities within each category.
   • The system is a realistic dynamism because every real is dynamic, embodying both change and permanence.
   • Jainism is non-absolutist, affirming diverse attributes within a unitary entity and rejecting absolute affirmations of existence or non-existence.

2. Anekānta Theory of Existence (Chapter 1):

   • Anekānta (non-absolutism) is the foundational principle, encompassing both the theory of existence and judgment.
   • It signifies the affirmation of opposing elements within the same reality, not merely a plurality of components.
   • Negation (nāstitva) is as ontologically valid as position (astitva), coexisting as traits (dharmas) or implicates within a unitary entity. This is the core of its non-absolutist stance, avoiding philosophical extremes.
   • The author critically examines Western philosophers like Hegel and thinkers like P.T. Raju and S. Mookerjee on negation and the nature of reality.
   • Reality is not a featureless entity or pure being; it is a unity-cum-diversity, where substance, attributes, modes, and traits coexist.
   • Jaina dynamism is illustrated through the concept of sat (existence) being the copresence of origination, decay, and permanence, all viewed as traits of a substance.

3. Syādvāda or Jaina Dialectic (Chapter 2):

   • Syādvāda is the logical corollary of Anekānta, providing a framework for understanding reality through partial comprehensions.
   • It emphasizes that no predicate can reveal the whole truth about a reality, offering only a partial view based on isolating elements.
   • The doctrine necessitates the use of contexts or reference-systems (nayas) to make valid partial statements, avoiding contradiction.
   • The author compares Syādvāda with the dialectical approaches of Kant, Hegel, Sankara, and the Madhyamikas, highlighting the Jaina emphasis on the validity of partial truths within their defined contexts.
   • The merit of Jaina dialectic lies in its ability to integrate diverse viewpoints without resorting to philosophical extremes.

4. The Soul (Jiva) (Chapter 3):

   • The book meticulously reviews various theories of the soul, including Materialism, Idealism (Sankara, Berkeley, Ramanuja, Hegel, Bradley), Neutralism, and Dualism.
   • Jaina criticism of Materialism argues that consciousness is fundamentally different from matter and cannot arise from it. It highlights the irreconcilable nature of unconscious matter and consciousness.
   • Idealistic theories are discussed, noting their common focus on consciousness but also their varying approaches to the reality of the material world and individual selves. The author finds a convergence towards Neutralism in many idealistic systems.
   • Jaina dualism posits soul and matter as distinct substances, but crucially, they are only partially different, not absolutely opposed. This allows for interaction and interdependence, a concept explained through "auxiliary causation" (nimitta).
   • The author critiques Descartes' strict dualism and the limitations of theories like parallelism and interactionism, finding the Jaina approach to the mind-body relation through auxiliary causation to be more comprehensive.

5. The Soul and Consciousness (Upayoga) (Chapter 4):

   • Consciousness (upayoga) is identified as the defining characteristic (differentia) of the soul, understood as both a structural aspect and a functional manifestation.
   • The book delves into controversies regarding the identity of consciousness, whether it's a general trait of all soul attributes or distinct. It concludes consciousness is the general implication of special attributes that distinguish the soul from non-soul.
   • It addresses the debate on the successive versus simultaneous occurrence of conation (darśana) and knowledge (jñāna), arguing for their simultaneous operation in both mundane and liberated souls, though traditional views often suggest succession in the mundane state.
   • The concept of objectless consciousness is deemed untenable in Jainism, as consciousness inherently implies an object.
   • Knowledge (jñāna) is analyzed as a prehension of objects with their details (sākāra), incorporating elements of both presentationism and representationism.
   • Jainism categorizes knowledge into direct (pratyakṣa) and indirect (parokṣa). Indirect knowledge includes sensuous (mati) and perceptual (śruta) knowledge.
   • Direct knowledge comprises clairvoyance (avadhi), telepathy (manaḥparyaya), and perfect knowledge (kevala-jñāna). The text discusses the nuances and distinctions between avadhi and manaḥparyaya.
   • Omniscience (kevalajñāna) is presented as the soul's ultimate manifestation, achieved through the complete destruction of obscuring karmas, allowing the soul to know all things simultaneously and directly. Arguments against omniscience are addressed and refuted.
   • Self-consciousness is also discussed, asserting that the soul can know itself through its attributes and modes.

6. Structure of the Soul and Extension (Chapter 5):

   • The soul, as a substance, is considered to have extension (vistāra), meaning it occupies space. This is a necessary implication of existence according to Jainism.
   • The Jaina view of extension differs from material extension in that souls do not offer resistance to each other, allowing multiple souls to occupy the same space.
   • Extension is an attribute of the substance, not of abstracted qualities or thoughts.
   • The book critiques Western psychological theories that deny extension to the mind, arguing that a substantial basis (like "psychoplasm") is implicitly assumed.
   • Jaina dualism allows for souls to have variable magnitudes, contracting or expanding to fit the body they inhabit. This is explained through the concept of pradeśas (soul-units), which interpenetrate rather than being added or subtracted.
   • Criticisms regarding the soul's potential impermanence due to variable magnitude are addressed by emphasizing the non-absolute nature of change and permanence in Jainism. The soul's substance remains eternal, while its modal manifestations (like extension) vary.

7. Bliss as an Attribute of the Soul (Chapter 6):

   • The soul possesses an affective faculty or "feeling" (bhāva), distinct from cognition and conation, which manifests as bliss (sukha).
   • Various Jaina thinkers debate whether bliss is an independent attribute or identical with knowledge or conation. The author leans towards bliss being a distinct attribute, manifested as pleasure or pain due to karmic influence.
   • Pleasure and pain are seen as distorted manifestations of the soul's faculty of feeling, caused by the influence of karmas, particularly the Vedaniya and Mohaniya (deluding) karmas.
   • In the liberated state, bliss is an unobstructed manifestation of the soul's faculty of feeling, signifying pure and perfect enjoyment.

8. Plurality of Souls (Chapter 7):

   • The book affirms the plurality of souls as a fundamental fact, evident from distinct individual experiences, both functionally and structurally.
   • Jaina dualism posits that each soul is a distinct substance, maintaining its individuality even in the liberated state.
   • The author examines the views of Western philosophers (Descartes, Berkeley, Kant, Leibniz) and Indian schools (Nyāya, Sānkhya, Advaita Vedānta) on the plurality of souls, finding agreement with those who uphold genuine differences.
   • The critique of Advaita Vedanta is that its absolute monism ultimately negates the reality of individual differences, reducing them to illusion.

9. Jaina Eschatology (Chapter 8):

   • This chapter focuses on the doctrine of karma as the fundamental basis for Jaina psychology, explaining the limitations and distortions of the soul's powers.
   • Jainism uniquely posits materiality of karmas (karma-pudgala), conceived as extremely fine matter that enters the soul. This provides a substantial basis for karmic influence.
   • The soul's inherent negativity (vibhāva-śakti), a power for distortion, is identified as the root cause for its susceptibility to karmic bondage. This negativity is a power, not an attribute, and is suspended when karmas are removed.
   • The Jaina theory of the relation between soul and karmas is neither strict interactionism nor parallelism but a form of auxiliary causation, where both soul and karma-pudgala mutually influence each other due to their inherent powers.
   • The association of soul and karmas is beginningless, akin to dross and ore, but it is also considered dissolvable through appropriate effort.
   • Karmas are classified into ghāti (destructive) and aghāti (non-destructive), affecting the soul's attributes to varying degrees.
   • The chapter details the classification of karma forces (psychical, physiological, environmental) and the life-history of karmas (bandha, ābādhā, satta, udaya, etc.).
   • It explains the five types of conscious manifestations of the soul resulting from karmic influence: aupaśamika (subsidential), kṣāyika (destructive), kṣāyopaśamika (destructive-subsidential), audayika (operative), and pāriņāmika (natural).
   • The problem of karma-determinism vs. indeterminism is discussed, asserting that Jainism advocates a balanced view where effort (puruṣārtha) works in conjunction with karmic influence, allowing for moral accountability without absolute fatalism or complete freedom.

10. The Jaina Theory of Liberation and the Non-absolute (Chapter 9):

    • Liberation (mokṣa) is understood as the soul's freedom from karmic bondage, leading to the unobstructed manifestation of its inherent pure powers.
    • The Jaina view of liberation is presented as an existential fact, unlike the idealistic or nihilistic interpretations in some other schools.
    • The author discusses the impossibility of absolute idealism (Sankara) and absolute void (Buddhism) in explaining liberation, as they tend to negate either the self or the process.
    • Kundakunda's theory of the "pure soul" (paramārtha or niscaya naya) is highlighted, emphasizing a reality beyond all partial viewpoints (nayavādas). This "pure soul" is described as the non-absolute, transcending dualities.
    • The book contrasts Jaina liberation with the concepts of the absolute in Advaita Vedanta (Sat-cit-ānanda), Madhyamika (Śūnyatā), Hegelian dialectic, and Bradleian absolute, arguing that the Jaina non-absolute offers a more consistent and comprehensive view that integrates diversity and change within ultimate reality.
    • The liberated soul retains its extension and dynamism, characterized by constant, pure modes (sadrśā parinamana) rather than evolution towards a higher state.

Overall Contribution:

Dr. S.C. Jain's work provides a detailed and critical examination of the Jaina philosophy of the soul. It excels in its comparative approach, engaging with numerous Western and Indian thinkers to clarify and validate the unique Jaina perspectives on the soul's structure, functions, bondage, and liberation, all grounded in the non-absolute framework of Anekānta and Syādvāda. The book is presented as a significant contribution to modern philosophical literature, aiding in the understanding and assessment of Jain conceptions.