Some Early Jaina Temples In Western India

Here's a comprehensive summary of M.A. Dhaky's "Some Early Jaina Temples in Western India," based on the provided text:

Overall Contribution of Jainism to Western Indian Culture and Architecture:

The text highlights the profound and multifaceted contribution of Jainism, particularly its Śvetāmbara sect, to the cultural fabric of Western India, encompassing Rajasthan and Gujarat. Jainism is presented as a significant force in shaping the region's identity, influencing its people's gentle character, vegetarianism, and, most importantly, its rich architectural tradition. Jainas are noted as contributing nearly half the share to this architectural heritage and even aiding its survival during the late Middle Ages, eventually becoming its primary patrons.

Historical Context and Jainism's Rise:

Jainism's presence in Western India, particularly Saurashtra, is ancient, potentially as old as Buddhism. While Buddhism initially held sway, especially in centers like Valabhi, Jainism gradually gained prominence as Buddhism began to decline around the 8th century. The destruction of Valabhi by Arabs in 783-84 led to the relocation of Jaina relics to safer sanctuaries. Importantly, Jainism expanded to many sites where Buddhism had not been prevalent. The founding of cities like Anhilapāṭaka (Patan) in the 8th century saw the establishment of significant Jaina temples, patronized by rulers and influential figures.

Royal and Elite Patronage:

From the 8th century onwards, Jainism received significant patronage from various Western Indian dynasties. This included:

• Imperial Caulukyas (Solankis) of Anhilapāṭaka: Rulers like Mūlarāja I, Kāmuṇḍarāja, Durlabharāja, Bhīmadeva I, Karṇadeva, Jayasimha Siddharāja, and especially Kumārapāla (influenced by Hemacandra) were instrumental in founding numerous Jaina temples and monastic institutions. Kumārapāla's patronage was particularly extensive.
• Imperial Gurjara-Pratīhāras and Collateral Branches: These dynasties in Rajasthan also showed zeal for Jainism, with rulers like Nāgabhaṭṭa I founding temples. Successors were influenced by prominent Jaina monks.
• Guhilas of Medapāta (Mewar): Rulers like Bhartsbhaṭṭa I and his successor Allața contributed to Jaina architectural endeavors.
• Cāhamānas: Both the Sākambhari and Naddula branches of the Cāhamānas extended patronage to Jainism, with figures like Pr̥thvīrāja I, Ajayapāla, and Kirttipāla making significant grants and foundations.
• Rāṣṭrakūtas of Hastikundi: These rulers were ardent followers, with Vidagdharāja and Mammaṭa founding and patronizing Jaina shrines.

Beyond royalty, ministers, high officials, and wealthy commercial communities played a crucial role. Notable examples include Vimala (Dilwara temple), Sāntū, Muñjāla, Udayana, Solāka, Kapardi, Sajjana, Pṛthvīpāla, and the exceptionally prolific brothers Vastupāla and Tejapāla, who founded numerous religious edifices.

Jaina Clergy and Fraternities:

The Jaina clergy, particularly the Śvetāmbara monastic orders (gaṇas, sākhas, and kulas, later evolving into gacchas), were the driving force behind the faith's propagation and the construction of temples. These monks were not only spiritual guides but also learned scholars whose literary pursuits enriched the cultural heritage. Prominent figures like Haribhadrasūri, Śīlāṅka, Siddharṣi, various Sūris from different gacchas, and especially Hemacandra are highlighted for their intellectual and spiritual contributions. The text notes the division of the clergy and the emergence and proliferation of various gacchas, sometimes named after places, communities, or founding preceptors, with periods of internal disputes but generally a unifying spirit that viewed Western India as a single cultural unit.

Challenges and Triumphs:

Despite the widespread patronage, Jainism did face challenges:

• Internal Lapses: The emergence of the monastic (Caityavāsi) order within Śvetāmbara Jainism, which allowed for laxity in ethical codes, is noted. The influence of these Caityavāsis and their opposition to more ascetic orders are discussed, with efforts to re-establish stricter adherence to Jaina principles.
• Rivalry with Digambaras: While Śvetāmbara Jainism dominated, Digambara Jainism also had a presence, though less intense. Doctrinal debates and intellectual contests at royal courts saw Śvetāmbara scholars emerge victorious in several instances, though Digambara communities continued to thrive in certain regions.
• Persecution: While Western India generally offered a more favorable environment compared to other parts of India, there were instances of hostility. The actions of Ajayapāla, who persecuted Jainas and destroyed temples, are cited as a significant setback. The text also alludes to the "extremes" of non-violence preaching and the danger of monks' excessive familiarity with the court as contributing factors to internal and external conflicts.
• Brahminical Rivalry: Although less pronounced than elsewhere, there were instances of jealousy from Brahmins at courts, though rulers often disregarded these murmurs. The text contrasts the open-mindedness of Śvetāmbara Jainism with the more rigid and sometimes intolerant attitudes seen in other religious traditions and their architectural expressions (e.g., Khajuraho sculptures).

Architectural Styles and Key Monuments:

The author meticulously analyzes the evolution of temple architecture in Western India, identifying distinct styles:

• Maha-Maru Style: Prevalent from the latter half of the 8th century to the end of the 10th century, particularly in Rajasthan.
• Maha-Gurjara Style: Also prevalent during the same period, primarily in Gujarat, and influencing the Arbuda and Medapata schools.
• Maru-Gurjara Style: A hybrid, highly ornate, and standardized style that emerged from the fusion of Maha-Maru and Maha-Gurjara around the dawn of the 11th century. This style became the dominant legacy in Western India.

The book then delves into detailed descriptions of significant early Jaina temples, serving as exemplars of these styles and the development of Jaina temple planning:

• Mahāvīra Temple, Osian: Considered the oldest extant Jaina temple in Western India, representing the Mahā-Māru style in its early phase. It showcases the development of Jaina iconography and temple planning, including the evolution of the "rangamandapa" (dancing hall). The temple's construction spanned several centuries.
• Mahāvīra Temple, Varman: Notable for illustrating the earliest archaeological evidence of twenty-four Devakulikās (chapels), aligning with literary traditions of similar foundations. The temple exhibits elements of the Mahā-Gurjara style.
• Mahāvīra Temple, Ghanerav: An example of the Medapāta school of the Māru-Gurjara style, rich in iconography, including the earliest known example of Brahmaśānti Yakṣa.
• Navalakhā Pārśvanātha Temple, Pali: Demonstrates the transition between Maha-Maru and Maha-Gurjara styles, with its Mūlaprasāda showing Maha-Gurjara influence and the Gūḍhamandapa retaining Maha-Maru characteristics.
• Mahāvīra Temple, Sewadi: Features a Bhūmija style śikhara and exhibits aspects of both Maha-Maru and Maha-Gurjara traditions, with significant contributions from skilled sculptors.
• Ādinātha Temple, Nadlai: While showing stylistic connections to Khetaka, it exhibits later Maru-Gurjara features and a legend of rivalry between Brahmins and Jainas.
• Vijaya Pārśvanātha Temple, Sāḍri: A smaller replica of the Nadol temple, showcasing the Maru-Gurjara style with preserved Maha-Maru features.
• Jaina Temples at Nadol: Including temples of Neminātha, Śāntinātha, and Padmaprabha, these exemplify the Maru-Gurjara style and highlight the architectural activity under the Cāhamānas.

Conclusion:

The book emphasizes that while many early Jaina temples in key centers have been lost, the surviving examples, especially those from the late 8th to late 11th centuries, provide invaluable insights into the development of Western Indian architecture, the rich patronage of Jainism, and the profound cultural synthesis that characterized the region. The text underscores the importance of a regional and chronological approach to classifying architectural styles, moving beyond purely dynastic labels. The legacy of these early Jaina temples is presented as a vital part of India's artistic and cultural heritage.