Some Aspects Of Jaina Monastic Jurisprudence

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Overall Aim: The book explores the development and characteristics of Jaina monastic jurisprudence, which governs the rules and regulations for monks and nuns within the Jaina tradition. It highlights how this jurisprudence maintained its core principles while adapting to internal and external influences throughout history.

Key Themes and Arguments:

• Resilience of Jaina Monachism: Unlike Buddhist monachism, which disappeared from India, Jaina monachism has survived and maintained its hold on a significant population. This resilience is attributed to its ability to navigate internal developments (philosophical differences, strong leaders) and external societal forces (royal influence, social structure, laity).
• Challenges in Studying Jurisprudence: The study of Jaina monastic jurisprudence is made challenging by:
  • Redactions of Canonical Literature: The Jaina canon underwent several revisions before being finalized, leading to differences between the Digambara and Svetambara traditions, hindering historical tracing of rules.
  • Lack of Detailed Historical Context: While texts list rules and punishments, they often lack the specific circumstances and reasoning behind their formulation. Commentaries often provide crucial details that the original texts omit.
• Evolution of Jurisprudence: The jurisprudence shows a steady growth influenced by increased interaction between monks and society.
  • Early Stage (Angas): The oldest texts, the Angas, depict Jaina monachism primarily as a philosophical and ethical system rather than a structured church with a hierarchy. They emphasize ethical standards for monastic behavior to attract recruits and distinguish from other systems. While they mention officers (like seha, samanera, thera, uvajjhāya, āyariya, gani) and church units (gaña, kula, sambhoga), they lack details on their specific duties, legal positions, or dismissal processes. Disqualifications for entry are mentioned, but with limited detail.
  • Transgressions and Punishments (Prāyaścittas): The Angas acknowledge that monks commit transgressions due to various reasons (pride, carelessness, pain, fear, etc.). These transgressions require confession (alocanā) and atonement (prāyaścitta). The ten principal prāyaścittas are listed:
    1. Alocanā (confession)
    2. Pratikramana (condemnation of transgression)
    3. Tadubhaya (confession and condemnation)
    4. Viveka (giving up transgressions)
    5. Vyutsarga (making kāyotsarga - renunciation of the body)
    6. Tapas (undergoing fasts)
    7. Cheda (cutting of seniority/rank)
    8. Mūla (re-consecration)
    9. Anavasthāpya (temporary expulsion)
    10. Pārāñcita (expulsion from the Order) However, the Angas lack concrete examples of how these punishments were applied, with details often found only in commentaries. The commentaries elaborate on improper ways of confession and the specific offenses leading to anavasthāpya and pārāñcita.
  • Advanced Stage (Cheda-sūtras and Niryuktis): These texts mark a significant shift, presenting a more organized Jaina church with codified rules and a clear manual of monastic jurisprudence. They provide details on:
    • Qualifications of Officers: Specific standing (paryāya or years in monkhood), learning, and moral conduct are defined for various positions like jäithera, suyathera, pariyāya thera, upādhyāya, āyariyauvajjhāya, gaṇāvacchedaka, and ācārya.
    • Rules of Seniority and Succession: The concept of paryāya (seniority based on years) is crucial. Rules were developed to prevent conflict between age and seniority, including protocols for confirming novices. Democratic principles were evident in the power of the monastic community to remove unfit appointed successors.
    • Misbehavior and Dismissal: Specific offenses like breaking celibacy while in office, lying, deceit, or becoming worldly led to lifelong debarment from office. Breaking celibacy after leaving office resulted in suspension.
    • Detailed Punishments: The last four prāyaścittas (cheda, mūla, anavasthāpya, pārāñciya) are elaborated.
      • Cheda involves a reduction in ecclesiastical rank.
      • Mūla requires starting monastic life anew.
      • Anavasthāpya is temporary expulsion, requiring sincere efforts for re-entry.
      • Pārāñciya is permanent expulsion.
    • Methods of Purification: Besides prāyaścittas, methods like arovanā (increasing punishment for repeat offenses) and parihara-viśuddhi (a form of purification involving communal fasting and waiting) are described.
• Post-Canonical Texts and Adaptability: Later texts show greater awareness of public opinion (the laity) and a capacity for adjustment.
  • Exceptions to Rules: There were exceptions to rules regarding age of ordination (children could be ordained in specific circumstances) and eligibility for eunuchs (if they possessed certain valuable qualities).
  • Relationship with Ruling Power: The church sought to maintain positive relations with ruling powers and leverage them for the Order's benefit.
  • Rise of Gacchas: The emergence of various gacchas (monastic lineages) led to their own sets of rules, with ācāryas responsible for maintaining morale and expelling errant disciples.
  • Elaborate Fasts: A complex system of expiatory fasts (caturlaghu, masalaghu, masaguru, etc.) became prominent, indicating a shift towards milder, more frequent punishments. The severity of these fasts varied based on the location of the transgression and the hierarchical position of the monk.
  • Nuances in Punishments: The texts detail specific offenses leading to cheda, mūla, anavasthāpya, and pārāñciya, with anavasthāpya involving prolonged secluded life and pārāñciya requiring a lengthy period of isolation, though commutation was possible in some cases, even through royal intervention.
• Jurisprudence for Nuns: Nuns held a subordinate position to monks. A monk of shorter standing could be the upādhyāya of a nun of much longer standing. The ācārya, upādhyāya, and pravartinī were considered protectors of nuns. While many rules were similar to monks, there were differences in specific practices like parihāra.
• Concluding Observations:
  • Jaina texts, unlike Buddhist ones, lack exhaustive details on the historical context of rule formulation.
  • The core list of ten prāyaścittas remained consistent, but later texts codified and elaborated on the rules, often relying on commentaries for details.
  • Later texts emphasized expiatory fasts, suggesting major punishments were less frequently applied.
  • The subordinate position of nuns was a consistent feature.
  • The overarching goal of Jaina monastic jurisprudence was to preserve orthodoxy and the purity of monastic life, which remain cherished ideals.