Shravanbelgola Ke Abhilekho Me Jain Tattva Chintan - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Shravanbelgola ke Abhilekho me Jain tattva Chintan" by Jagbir Kaushik:

The book "Shravanbelgola ke Abhilekho me Jain tattva Chintan" (Jain Philosophical Contemplation in the Inscriptions of Shravanbelgola) by Jagbir Kaushik examines the Jain philosophical concepts found in the inscriptions of Shravanbelgola. The author posits that Jain Acharyas (spiritual leaders) aimed to make Jainism an inclusive and accessible religion that would attract followers of Brahmanical culture without compromising its core principles. When faced with opposition from non-Jain scholars, Jain Acharyas would engage in debates (shastrartha) to resolve disputes, a practice evidenced in the analyzed inscriptions.

Key Jain Concepts Discussed:

Dharma (Religion/Righteousness): In Jainism, Dharma is defined as compassion towards all living beings and the control of passions (kashayas). This control involves restraining unrestrained tendencies. Another perspective, as found in "Bhavaprabhṛta," defines Dharma as the pure mental states of the soul, free from attachment and agitation, ultimately equating Dharma with Moksha (liberation). The inscriptions mention Moksha using terms like Mukti, Kaivalya, and Pramoksha.
Atma (Soul): The soul is described as that which perpetually possesses right faith (darshan), right knowledge (gyan), and right conduct (charitra). The inscriptions refer to the concept of "Dwadasatma" (twelve souls). The path to Moksha is considered to be the practice of this "Ratnatraya" (three jewels): Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gyan, and Samyak Charitra. The methodology or doctrine for practicing these three jewels is called Syadvada or Anekantavada.
Nayavada (Doctrine of Standpoints): Nayavada explains how different standpoints can be used to understand reality without contradiction. A "Naya" is a linguistic expression that signifies a particular meaning (sadhya) within the ultimate principle of Syadvada, without creating any conflict. The inscriptions mention Nayavada and its seven types:
- Naigama: Deals with the combined aspect of general and specific.
- Sangraha: Deals only with the general.
- Vyavahara: Deals only with the specific.
- Rijusutra: Deals with the momentary specific.
- Shabda: Refers to the usage of words based on convention or popular usage.
- Samabhiruḍha: Refers to the usage of words based on their etymological derivation.
- Evambhūta: Refers to the usage of words based on their present or imminent state of being.
Pramana (Means of Valid Knowledge) and its Subject: Syadvada encompasses the discussion of Pramana, its subject matter (prameya), and Nayavada. In Jainism, "Samyagyan" (right knowledge) is considered Pramana. There are five types of Samyagyan: Mati, Shrut, Avadhi, Manahparyaya, and Kevala. The Shravanbelgola inscriptions specifically mention Shrut Gyan and Keval Gyan.
- Shrut Gyan: This is knowledge gained through listening, obtained by the subsidence of the obstruction to knowledge. It's considered indirect knowledge (paroksha pramana). Historically, knowledge was primarily transmitted orally from guru to disciple before the invention of writing. Even after being compiled into scriptures, this knowledge retained the name "Shrut," representing the divine speech of the Tirthankaras.
- Keval Gyan: This signifies complete and independent knowledge. When the veils of ignorance are removed, the distinctions in knowledge disappear, and knowledge becomes singular, independent of sensory organs or the mind. It's considered direct knowledge (pratyaksha pramana). Jainism upholds the principle of omniscience (sarvajñata). A Kevali (one with Keval Gyan) knows both the universe and the non-universe upon attaining this knowledge. The subject of Keval Gyan encompasses all substances and their states. Kevalis are those who possess knowledge other than Mati, including Shrutakevalis, Avadhigyanakevalis, Manahparyayakelvalis, and Kevalajñanakevalis. Shrutakevalis and Kevalajñanis have similar subjects of knowledge (all substances and states), but their method of knowing differs – Shrutakevalis know progressively through scriptures, while Kevalajñanis know directly and simultaneously. The inscription also uses the term "Apavarga," a term from Nyaya philosophy, as a synonym for Keval Gyan, referring to ultimate liberation from suffering.
Padartha (Substance/Category): The inscriptions refer to the subject of Pramana as "Padartha." While the classifications of Padartha aren't explicitly detailed, the presence of terms like "karma," "nirastakarma" (karma-free), and "baddhakarma" (bound by karma) indirectly indicates their relevance. Karma is defined as that which makes a soul dependent or is acquired through actions involving wrong faith and other mental states. The soul's inherent nature is described as an eternal, luminous entity possessing infinite perception, knowledge, conduct, and vigor. However, this pure nature is distorted by material karmas. Jain Acharyas explain that just as intoxicating substances affect consciousness, material karmas influence the formless soul. Terms like avidya (ignorance), maya (illusion), vasana (desire), mala (impurity), prakriti (nature), karma, moha (delusion), and mithyadarshan (wrong faith) are considered synonymous.
Achara (Conduct/Ethics): The inscriptions mention "Achara," emphasizing the equal importance of conduct and thought in Jain tradition. Jain philosophy is characterized by conduct rooted in Ahimsa (non-violence) and thought based on Anekantavada (non-absolutism). The text highlights Panchachara (the five conduct principles for ascetics, also called Shramanachara) and Shravakachara (the conduct principles for lay followers, also called Ekadashachara).
- Shramanachara (Panchachara): These are the great vows (mahavratas) undertaken by ascetics who completely renounce violence, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and possession. The text clarifies that terms like Shravaka, Upasaka, Desavirata, Sagara, Shraddha, and Desasamyata refer to lay followers, whose vows are called small vows (anuvratas) due to partial renunciation. The five great vows are: complete abstinence from violence, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and possession.
- Shravakachara: Lay followers are known by various names like Shravaka, Upasaka, Anuvarati, Desavirata, and Sagara. They are called "Shraddha" or "Shravaka" because they faithfully listen to the teachings of their spiritual guides (ascetics). They are also known as Shramano-pasaka or Upasaka for worshipping ascetics. Due to observing partial or incomplete restraint (anuvrata), they are called Anuvarati, Desavirata, Desasamyami, or Desasanyata. As they are "Sagara" (householders), they have not renounced their homes. Shravakachara is expounded in three ways: based on the twelve vows, based on the eleven stages (pratimas), and based on practice, discipline, or accomplishment. The inscriptions mention the eleven stages of Shravakachara as described by Kundakunda and Vasunandi: Darshanika, Pratikamika, Samayiki, Proshadhopavasi, Sachittavirata, Ratribhuktavirata, Brahmachari, Arambhavirata, Parigrahavirata, Anumativirata, and Uddishtavirata.
Sallekhana: This is a specific conduct mentioned in Shravakachara and within the inscriptions. It refers to the practice of intense austerity at the time of death, known as "apashchima-maranantika Sallekhana." It involves a thorough review of past actions and the practice of austerities to weaken the body and passions. Death attained through Sallekhana is called Samadhi Marana (meditative death). The purpose of Sallekhana is to shed the burden of the body with a calm and happy mind, free from anger, contemplating the soul and renouncing life with equanimity.
Gyanachara: This refers to the effort made in practicing right faith and knowledge, purified to the best of one's ability. The text also mentions five other conduct principles: Samyagdarshanachara, Gyanachara, Charitrachara, Tapachara, and Viryachara. Gyanachara is specifically mentioned in the inscriptions.
Tapa (Austerity) and Samadhi (Meditation): Tapa is practiced by a mendicant with the "eye" of right knowledge to purify themselves of the "dirt" of karma. The inscriptions mention Tapa and its twelve types (Dwadasha Tapa). Samadhi is defined as the pacification of the mind. The inscriptions refer to Samadhi and its forms: savikalpaka (with contemplation) and nirvikalpaka (without contemplation).
Vrata (Vows): Vrata means abstaining from violence, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and possession. It is the firm resolution to give up the consumption of certain substances or the performance of inauspicious actions for a fixed or indefinite period. The inscriptions mention Vratas at multiple locations, distinguishing between the partial vows (anuvratas) of lay followers and the complete vows (mahavratas) of ascetics.
Devi-Devata (Deities): The inscriptions provide evidence of the worship and praise of deities among Jains. They mention a variety of Jain and non-Jain deities, including Dhurjata (Shiva), Maheshvara, forest deities, Tribhuvanatilaka, Shasana Devetas (guardian deities of the 24 Tirthankaras), Parameshvara, Saraswati, and Padmavati.

Conclusion:

The author concludes that while the inscriptions from Shravanbelgola contain valuable material related to Jain Dharma, philosophy, and conduct, they are not always detailed or clear enough to present a systematic exposition of these diverse aspects of Jainism. Nevertheless, they offer significant insights into the philosophical contemplation prevalent in the Jain tradition as reflected in the historical records of Shravanbelgola.