Schools And Sects In Jaina Literature

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Book Overview:

"Schools and Sects in Jaina Literature" by Amulyachandra Sen, published by Vishva Bharati, Calcutta, in 1931, aims to provide a detailed account of various philosophical schools and religious sects mentioned in the canonical literature of the Svetambara Jainas. The author compiles information from original sources to illustrate the doctrines and practices of these contemporary groups, highlighting the intellectual and religious landscape of ancient India. The book is dedicated to Principal Vidhushekhara Bhattacharya, recognizing his influence on Indian scholarship.

Introduction and Methodology:

The introduction emphasizes that the Jaina canon, though formalized later, contains material much older, reflecting a period teeming with diverse and often conflicting philosophical and religious views. Jainas (or Nirgranthas) documented and criticized these "heretical" schools as a means of establishing the superiority of their own creed. The author's methodology involves:

• Focus on Canonical Literature: Primarily draws from Jaina canonical texts.
• Illustration from Non-Jaina Works: Occasionally refers to works outside the Jaina canon for clarification.
• Rejection of Later Critiques: Discards criticisms from later Jaina works that reflect later historical periods and influences.
• Comparison with Buddhist Literature: Utilizes Buddhist texts as parallel evidence due to the shared origins and critical outlook of both traditions.
• Analysis of Conflict: Highlights the animosity and rivalry between different schools as evident in Jaina texts.
• Historical Context: Aims to provide a historical background for Jaina doctrine by understanding the views Jainas felt compelled to refute.
• Selective Approach: Focuses on precise and identifiable statements rather than vague denunciations.

Key Schools and Doctrines Discussed:

The book is structured into three parts, covering various philosophical schools and religious sects.

Part I: Various Philosophical Schools

1. The Ājivikas: Identified as a prominent heresy, the Ājivikas, led by Gosāla Maṇkhāliputta, believed in Niyati (Fate) as the sole cause of all phenomena. They denied the efficacy of human exertion or effort, stating that all things are unalterably fixed. The text recounts a story where Mahāvīra debunks this by showing how Saddālaputta, a potter,'s actions demonstrate the importance of exertion. The Ājivikas also held views on the soul's potential defilement even after liberation, and their doctrines are presented as a significant challenge to Jaina thought.
2. Brahmanic Schools:
   • Samkhya and Yoga: Views attributed include the creation of the world by Isvara (theistic Samkhya) or from Pradhana (atheistic Samkhya). Perfection is attainable through their methods, leading to supernatural powers (siddhis). They also held the view that the soul (puruṣa) is a passive observer, while prakṛti acts, thus absolving the soul of agency.
   • Śāśvatavādins (Eternalists): Believed the world is boundless, eternal, and has no destruction. The natural order is immutably fixed.
   • Puranists: Believed the world is limited but eternal, with the commentator Silanka attributing this view to Vyāsa.
   • The Upanishads: Some attributed the idea that the Ātman (soul) appears in various forms like the universe, similar to how a single pile of earth presents many forms. They also discussed the concept of an unlimited highest authority, which Jainas contrasted with their own view of omniscience.
   • General Brahmanical Practices: The text mentions criticisms of Brahmanical rituals, sacrifices, and the belief in gods as creators or governors of the world. The emphasis on ceremonialism and possession by priests is also noted. The practice of human sacrifice is mentioned, though perhaps with some exaggeration, reflecting lingering beliefs.
3. Ātmasāṣthavāda (Doctrine of the Soul as the Sixth Substance): This school believed in five elements plus the soul as the sixth eternal substance. They asserted that the non-existent does not come into being and all things are eternal by nature. This view is presented as a critique of Buddhist impermanence and the Vaiseṣika view of destructibility.
4. Tajjīvataccharīravāda: This philosophy posited that the five gross elements are the original causes, and the soul is a product of these elements with no independent existence. Upon the body's dissolution, the living being ceases to exist. This materialistic view denied any afterlife or transmigration. The dialogue between King Payasi and Kesi illustrates the arguments against this doctrine, emphasizing the limitations of sensory perception in understanding the soul.
5. Nāstikavāda (Materialism/Atheism): This school denied the existence of the soul and anything beyond the five gross elements (earth, water, fire, air, sky). They represented an ultramaterialistic viewpoint, akin to Cārvāka philosophy, denying karma, rebirth, and any spiritual reality. The Jaina critique highlights the logical inconsistency of such a stance, especially when contrasted with their own understanding of cause and effect.
6. Buddhism: The text identifies several Buddhist doctrines as criticized by Jainas:
   • Allowing the use of water for various purposes, seen as a departure from strict asceticism.
   • The doctrine of five skandhas (aggregates) of momentary existence, denying a permanent, separate soul.
   • The concept of Akriyāvāda (non-action), where the action of the soul is not transmitted to future moments, and the denial of karma. This is linked to the Buddhist denial of a soul.
   • Emphasis on motive (rather than the act itself) determining sinfulness, as expressed in the context of accidental killings.
   • The idea that salvation is achieved through enjoying pleasures or specific meditative practices, criticized as a departure from true asceticism.
7. Minor Schools:
   • A school attributed to Caraka believed in performing both right and wrong conduct simultaneously.
   • Another sect found pleasure-seeking acceptable as long as it caused no harm, like squeezing a blister.
   • A nihilistic view (similar to some Buddhist schools like Mādhyamika) declared the unreality of the entire world, positing everything as illusion or dream.
   • Debates between knowledge vs. conduct are highlighted, with some schools prioritizing conduct and others knowledge for liberation.

Part II: Classification into Four Great Schools

The Jaina canon classifies contemporary philosophical schools into four main categories:

1. Kriyāvāda: Believers in the existence of the soul (jīva) and other principles. This is further divided into 180 sub-schools based on different theories of existence (e.g., existence through Time, God, Self, natural order, nature) and their relation to eternity (nitya) and non-eternity (anitya).
2. Akriyāvāda: Deniers of the soul and the efficacy of action (kriya). This category is further divided into 84 sub-schools, often based on the denial of existence through various causes. They are also categorized into broader groups like Eternalists, Annihilationists, etc. A key tenet is that "everything is of a momentary existence."
3. Ajñānavāda: Those who deny the necessity or importance of knowledge, advocating ignorance or skepticism. They argue that knowledge leads to dissension and further worldly bondage, while ajñāna removes pride and ill-will. They challenge the certainty of knowledge, even Mahāvīra's omniscience. This category comprises 67 schools, often based on nuanced epistemological stances regarding existence and indescribability.
4. Vinayavāda: Upholders of reverence as the cardinal virtue, disregarding external rules, ceremonies, and scriptures. This category has 32 schools, based on the object of reverence and the manner of showing reverence (body, mind, speech, gifts).

The total of these schools amounts to 363, a classification accepted by prominent Jaina commentators. The text also briefly compares this with the Buddhist classification of 62 schools.

Part III: Religious Sects and Jaina Criticisms

1. Religious Sects: This section lists a diverse array of ascetic sects with their distinct practices and beliefs. These include sects based on dietary restrictions (abstaining from salt, garlic, milk, etc.), water usage (cold water baths, living in water), fire worship, specific begging practices, unique ways of living (sleeping on bare ground, living in caves), and even practices considered extreme or eccentric (like killing an elephant to spare other animals).
2. The Sect of Pārsva: The text discusses the historical relationship between the sect founded by Pārsva and the teachings of Mahāvīra. It highlights discussions on the interpretation of vows, particularly the vow of celibacy (which Pārsva included within possessionlessness, later distinguished by Mahāvīra) and the practice of nudity (Mahāvīra advocating complete nudity, while Pārsva allowed garments). It suggests that Mahāvīra, whose parents were Pārsva followers, ultimately reverted to and improved upon the Pārsva tradition.
3. Schismatic Schools among the Nirgranthas: The book details several schisms within the Jaina order, initiated by individuals like Jamāli, Tissagutta, Asādha, Assamitta, Ganga, Saduluya (Rohagutta), and Gotthamāhilla. Each schism was based on differing interpretations of doctrines, leading to the formation of distinct groups with their own names and philosophies.
4. Nirgrantha Criticism of Other Schools: This section summarizes the specific critiques Jainas leveled against other schools:
   • Ājivikas: Criticized for overlooking the role of human exertion alongside fate.
   • Vedānta: Criticized for the concept of a singular Ātman, which would imply shared karmic consequences and a lack of individual differentiation.
   • Sāmkhya: Similar criticism of the passive puruṣa for failing to explain worldly diversity.
   • Tajjīvataccharītavādins: Criticized for not providing solutions to fundamental questions about good/bad actions and rebirth.
   • Buddhists: Criticized for uncritical faith in Buddha's authority and the justification of actions based on his permission.
   • Kriyāvādins: Criticized for overemphasis on outward acts, neglecting the sinful nature of thoughts.
   • Akriyāvādins: Criticized for denying karma and its transmission.
   • Brāhmaṇs, Ajñānavādins, Vinayavādins: Generally criticized, with Jaina emphasis on non-injury, right thinking, and right knowledge highlighted.
   • Śūnyavādins: Criticized for denying the future, pointing to instances of successful prognostication.
   • Ascetics practicing baths, fire-tending, dietary restrictions: Criticized for their inefficacy in achieving perfection, with humorous analogies drawn.

Conclusion:

The book concludes by emphasizing that the soil of India has always been conducive to the growth of religions and philosophies. The teachings of Mahāvīra are presented as a response to the profound religious and philosophical questions that animated India in ancient times, with his disciples continuing to practice his teachings. The work effectively demonstrates the rich and complex intellectual tapestry of ancient India as understood through the lens of Jaina literature.