Riddle Of Jainas And Ajivikas In Early Buddhist Literature - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided text from Johannes Bronkhorst's "The Riddle of the Jainas and Ajivikas in Early Buddhist Literature":

The book examines the portrayal of Jainas and Ajivikas in early Buddhist literature, specifically the Pali canon, and aims to understand the image the early Buddhists had of these groups, or what information they preserved about them. The author highlights that scholars often focus on comparing Buddhist accounts with Jaina canonical sources, but less frequently investigate what the Buddhist literature alone presents. This is important because Buddhist accounts might be inaccurate, or they might preserve older memories than the Jaina canon itself.

Understanding the Terms:

Jainas: In early Buddhist literature, they are referred to as Nirgranthas (meaning "unclothed" or "free from knots/bonds") or Niganthas. They are often associated with Nigantha Nataputta, identified with Mahavira.
Ajivikas: They are called Ajivikas or Ajrvakas. They are presented in Jaina literature as followers of Gosala Mankhaliputta, identified with Makkhali Gosala.

The Ajivikas in Buddhist Literature:

The Pali canon frequently mentions Ajivikas. Some passages are uninformative, simply stating an individual is an Ajivika (e.g., Upaka, Panduputta).
Other passages reveal that Ajivikas had followers ("ajivakasavaka") and constituted religious wandering groups.
A key characteristic emphasized by Buddhists is the nakedness of Ajivikas. The text provides examples where the Buddha's disciples, having taken off their clothes, are mistaken for Ajivikas, and where monks who find themselves naked due to robbery are also misidentified.
The terms Ajivika and aceluka (naked ascetic) are sometimes used interchangeably in Buddhist texts. Commentators like Buddhaghosa even define "Ajivika" as "naked ascetics." This suggests that "Ajivika" might have been a broader term encompassing various naked ascetics, not just a specific sect.

The Jainas in Buddhist Literature and the Distinction from Parsva:

The author raises a crucial question: Could the early Buddhists have included the naked followers of Mahavira within their broader category of "Ajivikas"?
Evidence from the Jaina canon indicates a historical division within Jainism during Mahavira's time: followers of Parsva (who wore clothes) and followers of Mahavira (who were naked).
Key differences between Parsva and Mahavira's teachings include:
- Nudity: Parsva's followers wore clothes (an under and upper garment), while Mahavira's were naked.
- Vows/Restraints: Parsva's followers observed four vows, while Mahavira's observed five.
The Buddhist canon generally does not present the Jainas as naked. Instead, they are often described as wearing a single garment.
A significant passage in the Anguttara Nikaya contrasts various groups, including Jainas who "wear a single garment" and Ajivikas who "wear no clothes at all." This passage further suggests a hierarchy of increasing nakedness or respect for it, with naked ascetics (likely Ajivikas) at the highest level of this particular classification.

Attributing Parsva's Teachings to Mahavira:

The book highlights that the Buddhist canon often attributes the four restraints (catuyamasusamvuta) to Nigantha Nataputta (Mahavira).
Scholars like Hermann Jacobi have pointed out that these four restraints actually belonged to Mahavira's predecessor, Parsva.
The specific enumeration of these four restraints in Buddhist texts like the Samannaphala Sutta is seen as a potential parody or misrepresentation of Jain teaching, but it aligns with Parsva's doctrines.
The passage from the Sankha Sutta, which lists four points attributed to Nigantha Nataputta (slaying living beings, taking what is not given, acting wrongly in sensual passion, and telling lies), also aligns with Parsva's four vows, with the potential for the fourth vow (bahiddhadana) to be interpreted sexually.
The author concludes that early Buddhists knew Parsva's four restraints but incorrectly attributed them to Nigantha Nataputta.

The "Real" Ajivikas and Determinism:

The hypothesis is that the term "Ajivika" in Buddhist texts might have been used broadly for all naked religious wanderers, including Mahavira's followers, alongside "real" Ajivikas who followed specific teachers and doctrines.
The Sandaka Sutta identifies three recognized emancipated ones of the Ajivikas: Nanda Vaccha, Kisa Sankiccu, and Makkhali Gasala. These are likely the founders or key figures of a distinct Ajivika movement.
The Sandaka Sutta also describes four "ways that negate the living of the holy life" attributed to naked ascetics, which are later identified with the teachings of Ajita Kesakambalin, Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, and Pakudha Kaccayana.
The text then delves into the concept of strict determinism as a characteristic of Makkhali Gosala's teachings, and the author speculates that this might have also been part of early Jainism.
The Sandaka Sutta presents a teacher claiming omniscience but experiencing mishaps (like entering empty houses or being bitten by dogs). The teacher justifies these by stating they "had to" happen, implying a deterministic framework. This deterministic explanation for the "shortcomings" of omniscient leaders is seen as a potential link between early Jainism and Ajivikism.
The author suggests that as Jainism became more idealized, elements conflicting with omniscience might have been removed, lessening the need for determinism.
Another shared feature between Jainism and Ajivikism mentioned is the concept of six "colours of the soul" (lesya) in Jainism and six abhijatis in Ajivikism, suggesting possible shared origins or influence.

Tentative Conclusion:

The book proposes a two-fold conclusion:

The Jainas (Nirgranthas) and Ajivikas in the Buddhist canon are likely not simply two distinct movements. The term "Ajivika" might have been used more broadly to encompass followers of Mahavira, "real" Ajivikas, and other religious wanderers, with nakedness being a common, but perhaps not exclusive, characteristic.
The doctrinal position of early Jainas might have been less distinct from that of the "real" Ajivikas than is often assumed. Both might have adhered to strict determinism, a doctrine that could have helped explain the perceived human imperfections of their "omniscient" leaders.