Religion And Philosophy Of The Jainas

The book "Religion and Philosophy of the Jainas" by Virchand R. Gandhi, edited by Nagin J. Shah, published by Jain International Ahmedabad in 1993, serves as a comprehensive introduction to Jaina thought. The work aims to present an authentic, rational, and lucid account of Jaina philosophy and religion, drawing from Gandhi's extensive lectures and studies.

The book is structured into four parts:

Part First: Cultural Environment This section begins by contextualizing Jainism within the broader Indian cultural landscape. It discusses the antiquity of Indian civilization, referencing the Vedas, and contrasts the nature of ancient Indian records with those of other civilizations, highlighting the focus on cultural and intellectual progress in Indian texts. Gandhi touches upon the social status of early Hindus, noting the absence of rigid caste distinctions in the Vedic period and the influence of different professions. He also reflects on the moral status of Hindus, citing ancient Greek, Chinese, and Persian accounts that praise their truthfulness and honesty. The section delves into the Hindu view of life's object and laws, illustrating the concept with a symbolic painting of a worldly man caught between worldly desires and the pursuit of spirituality. Gandhi also briefly introduces the six systems of Indian philosophy and the essential principles of Hinduism and Buddhism.

Part Second: Jaina Philosophy This part lays out the core tenets of Jaina philosophy.

• Chapter 1 (Introductory): Gandhi emphasizes the importance of psychological and ethical improvement for studying Jaina philosophy, contrasting it with the Western scientific method. He establishes Jainism's antiquity, noting its distinction from Buddhism. He clarifies the terms "Jina" and "Jaina" and explains Jaina dualism, which posits the existence of both spirit and matter as distinct substances. The chapter enumerates the nine fundamental principles, the six substances, six kinds of living beings, four states of existence, and the doctrines of transmigration and karma.
• Chapter 2 (Reality and Knowledge): This chapter expounds on the Jaina concept of reality, where both substance (dravya) and its modes (paryāya) are considered real. Gandhi contrasts this with Vedanta and Buddhism. He explains the Jaina method of analysis (Nayavāda) and synthesis (Syādvāda), emphasizing that truth is manysided. He critiques Shankaracharya's misunderstanding of Syādvāda.
• Chapter 3 (Soul): Gandhi explores the nature of the soul, defining consciousness as its essence. He addresses the soul's origin and its relationship with matter, arguing that while material things can influence the soul, they do not originate it. He discusses the doctrine of rebirth and transmigration, citing Western thinkers and even biblical passages to support the concept. He details the infinite number of souls and the classification of living beings based on their senses. Liberation is defined as the perfection of the individual soul, not its annihilation or merger. The chapter also touches upon the five gateways of knowledge and the interconnectedness of consciousness, body, and mind.
• Chapter 4 (Universe): The Jaina view of the universe as infinite in space and eternal in time (in its totality) but finite and non-eternal (in its manifestations) is presented. The universe is divided into animate and inanimate realms, and Gandhi highlights that the universe is self-governing, not created by an external deity. Time is also discussed as a generalized mode of thought rather than an independent substance.
• Chapter 5 (God): Jainism rejects the notion of an extra-cosmic personal creator. Instead, God is understood as a perfected soul, one who has attained infinite knowledge, bliss, and power through the destruction of passions. Anyone can become a "God" through self-purification. Worship of such perfected beings is for self-purification and spiritual elevation, not to appease them.
• Chapter 6 (Jaina Symbolism): This section explains the science of symbolism, detailing four reasons for its use: secrecy, protection, permanence, and intensity of effect. Gandhi discusses universal symbols like the Swastika, the sacred thread, and the symbolism of the elephant and blind men, clarifying their Jaina interpretations, which often differ from other traditions.

Part Third: Jaina Karma Philosophy (The Law of Moral Causation) This extensive part delves into the Jaina doctrine of karma, explaining it as the law of moral causation.

• Chapters 7-16: The book defines karma as subtle matter attracted by living beings due to impellent forces. It emphasizes that karma is a reality, albeit unseen, and is unique to each individual. Gandhi explains the relationship between the soul and karma, the classification of karma into eight types (knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, feeling-producing, deluding, lifespan-determining, body-making, status-determining, and obstructive), and the four primary impellent forces (delusion, lack of self-control, passions, and activity) that cause karma generation. The detailed subdivisions of each karma class are presented, illustrating the Jaina's intricate understanding of moral causation and its impact on individual existence. Gandhi stresses that karma is not fatalism but a system that allows for free will and moral responsibility.

Part Fourth: Doctrine of Spiritual Development This final part outlines the fourteen stages of spiritual development (guṇasthāna) recognized in Jainism.

• Chapter 17: Gandhi describes each of the fourteen stages, starting from mithyātva (delusion) and progressing through stages of partial and total self-control, culminating in omniscience and liberation. He details the karmic causes operative and generated at each stage, explaining how the control and annihilation of karmas lead to spiritual progress. The concept of samyaktva (right faith or attitude) is presented as a crucial turning point. The chapter also elaborates on the characteristics of an ideal Deity (Arhat/Tirthankara), a true spiritual teacher, and the concept of Dharma. It explains Jaina ethics, particularly the importance of dayā (compassion), and details the five minor vows (anuvratas), three supporting vows (guṇavratas), and four disciplinary vows (śikṣāvratas) that a layman observes. The latter part of this section, completed by the editor, continues the description of the stages of spiritual development, the nature of śukla-dhyāna (pure meditation), and the final stages of omniscience and liberation.

Overall Themes: The book highlights Gandhi's perspective on Jainism as a rational, ethical, and spiritually profound philosophy. He emphasizes the Jaina commitment to ahimsā (non-violence) as the supreme principle of conduct and the emphasis on individual effort and self-reliance for spiritual liberation. Gandhi's presentation aims to make Jaina philosophy accessible, demonstrating its depth and relevance by drawing parallels with Western philosophy and science where appropriate, while also asserting its unique contributions. The book concludes with an appendix on the contribution of Jainism to literature and progress, underscoring its historical and cultural impact in India.