Rajasthani Chitrakala - Book Summary

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The book "Rajasthani Chitrakala" by Parmanand Choyal explores the rich history and evolution of painting in Rajasthan. The author begins by asserting that art is the tangible expression of the human heart and criticizes those who only appreciate external, realistic art, suggesting they cannot truly savor Indian art. He highlights the pivotal role of Dr. Anand Coomaraswamy in bringing Indian art, including Rajasthani painting, to international recognition.

Historical Context and Early Development:

Ancient Roots: The text posits that Rajasthani art has a distinct place within the 2000-year Indian art tradition. It references the 7th-century Buddhist historian Taranatha, who described Rajasthan as a major art center in the 7th century, with a particular art current flowing from it, with Shringdhara as its prominent painter. However, information about Rajasthani painting prior to this is scarce.
Types of Rajasthani Paintings: Three main types are identified:
- Mural Paintings (Bhitti-chitra): The tradition of murals dates back to the Ajanta era, but the method of preparing the surface differs significantly from the Rajasthani technique, which is described as a "pure fresco process" akin to the Italian "buon fresco" (painting on wet plaster). The oldest known Rajasthani murals are found in Virat, near Jaipur, and were copied by Shri Kripal Singh Shekhawat. These murals are characterized by themes of valor, flat and broad use of colors, minimal shading, and dynamic, curvilinear lines. Hundreds of ancient buildings and palaces still bear murals from the 16th to 17th centuries, depicting scenes of music, hunting, courtly life, and romantic tales.
- Manuscript Illustrations (Pustak-chitra): The earliest manuscript illustrations were found on birch bark and palm leaves. After the introduction of paper manufacturing in the 12th century, Jain illustrated manuscripts began to be produced, with Gujarat as a primary center. The close cultural and political ties between Gujarat and Southern Rajasthan suggest a shared stylistic unity in their art.
- Fragmentary Paintings (Chhinn-chitra): These are mentioned but not elaborated upon in this section.

Jain Influence and Transition:

The text notes the discovery of 13th and 15th-century Jain manuscripts in Mewar, suggesting the possibility of more such works existing elsewhere. The Jain manuscript collection in Jaisalmer also points to a history of Jain illustrated manuscripts in the region.
These manuscripts often feature wooden covers and a consistent artistic style that persisted until the late 16th century. While generally unique, there are faint traces of Persian influence in the depiction of clouds, flora, and certain decorative elements, which do not significantly detract from their inherent style.
The discovery of the 15th-century "Niamatnama" (possibly created for Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Khilji of Mandu) and a copy of the "Shahnama" in the Banaras Art College, both showing strong Persian influence, suggests a potential subtle impact of these Persian-influenced styles on the so-called Jain, Gujarati, or Rajasthani styles.

Evolution of Rajasthani Style:

Post-Mughal Influence: The author argues that Rajasthani style began to transform after the mature development of Mughal style between 1565 and 1580. Before this period, it's difficult to distinguish Rajasthani art from Jain or Gujarati styles. The early Rajasthani style is characterized by dramatic and ornate compositions, a rustic quality, bold and flat colors, and quick rendering of motifs. Distinctive features include the "sava-chashm" (three-quarter profile) face with the second eye extending beyond the facial outline, a small, almond-shaped chin, elongated eyes reaching the ears, prominent breasts in women, slender waists, and decorative attire for both men and women. Despite exhibiting an "apabhramsha" (corrupted) form of traditional art, it possessed a charming simplicity and innocence.
Emergence of the Mewar Style: This early Rajasthani style gradually evolved and gained distinctiveness by the end of the 16th century. A 1591 copy of the "Uttaradhyayana Sutra" in the Baroda Museum clearly shows this transformation, with the shift from "sava-chashm" to "ek-chashm" (profile) faces, the disappearance of the extended second eye, a relaxation in ornamentation and dramatic composition, a move towards more realistic landscape depiction, a loosening of stiff poses, a greater variety of colors, and a shift from sparse to dense compositions. The author considers this stylistic renewal as the origin of Rajasthani painting.
Mughal Impact on Mewar: While the extent of Mughal influence is debatable, it's certain that Mughal art had already flourished before Rajasthani art took its current form. Akbar's policy of reconciliation also unified much of Rajasthan culturally. The Mewar region became a prominent center, with its unique style developing by the end of the 11th century. Despite political turmoil in the 17th century, Mewar's painting continued to flourish.
- A 1605 "Ragmala" set from Mewar, possibly painted in Chammunda, shows a faint influence of Jain or Gujarati styles in its angular lines and vibrant colors. By 1605, Mewar style displayed rural and robust qualities, gradually gaining refinement and maturity while absorbing Mughal influences. By the mid-17th century, the Mewar style had assimilated these influences and reasserted its distinct identity.
- The Vaishnavite Bhakti movement influenced the creation of numerous illustrated "Bhagavata Purana" and "Ramayana" manuscripts. Notable examples include a 1642 "Bhagavata Purana" from Udaipur and a "Ramayana" from Chittor. The "Ragmala" sets from the National Museum and Bikaner Museum are considered excellent examples of the Mewar school.
- Mewari paintings are known for their pure, vibrant colors, flat backgrounds, and attractive, petite female figures. While nature depiction became ornate, later works sometimes show a touch of realism due to Mughal influence, particularly in the rendering of hills and rocks. Wavy lines are used to depict water flow, and the use of landscape elements became somewhat conventional. Contrasting colors and vibrant costumes of figures create striking visual effects. Animal and bird depictions often resemble Jain or Gujarati styles, while horses and elephants show Mughal realism. Night scenes are depicted with dark backgrounds and stars. Male attire includes voluminous "jamas," "patkas" (sashes), and Mughal-style turbans, while women wear "lehengas," "cholis," and sheer "odhanis."
- Themes in the Mewar school included "Nayak Nayika Bhed" (classification of heroes and heroines), "Ragmalas," "Bhagavata Purana," and "Ramayana." Romantic depictions of Radha-Krishna reflected the contemporary society. By the end of the 17th century, the Mewar style's brilliance declined, with an increase in output but a dilution of quality. Themes expanded to include portraiture, court scenes, hunting, and harem life. While numerous paintings were created on texts like "Bhakt Ratnavali" and "Prithviraj Raso," artistic merit gradually diminished.

Other Regional Styles:

Bundi Style: Following Mewar, Bundi emerged as an important art center. The earliest known works from this school, such as the "Deepak Rag" from Bharat Kala Bhavan and "Bhairav Ragini" from the Municipal Museum, Allahabad, exhibit a blend of Mewari rural simplicity and Mughal refinement. Their colors are vibrant and impactful. The direct and true observation in the depiction of flora and fauna in these paintings is noteworthy. Features like wide eyes, thick chins, thin pointed noses, and heavy faces recall 17th-century Mewar paintings. The "Bhairavi Ragini" is estimated to date around 1625 CE. The Bundi style is believed to have originated from Mewar, with significant Mughal influence. Early Bundi works display Mughal characteristics in male attire. National Museum Delhi has early Bundi line drawings where facial contours are becoming less distinct, suggesting a period of creation around 1630-1660 CE.
- Early Bundi paintings show a strong Mewari influence in female faces, but their structure is robust. Landscape depiction became more realistic. The development of distinct Bundi facial features is observed, with smaller, rounder faces and the use of shading below the eyes and near the nose to depict cheekbones, a technique absent in Mewar. While influenced by Mewar, these faces are highly attractive. Skin tones are reddish-brown, and colors, though vibrant, became subdued and serious. Water is depicted with wavy lines. Green backgrounds are adorned with red and yellow flowers. Buildings are rendered with meticulous detail.
- Mid-18th-century Bundi paintings are considered exceptionally beautiful, as seen in a collection of 36 "Rag Ragnis." By the late 18th century, this refinement declined. Bright yellow replaced red in facial tones. Excessive use of "pardaz" (shading) for roundness led to a harshness. White lines depicting water became dense and thick. Artificial attempts to highlight figures by shading near the mouth emerged. Flora became dense with flowers and vines. Gilded decorations on women's attire created a dazzling effect, but expressive power diminished, suggesting a gradual decline due to the influence of Mughal grandeur.
- Color depth changed, with a shift to peaceful and soft colors. Enameling and inlay work increased. Trees became more natural, with reduced vibrant floral and vine ornamentation. Shading and light were more emphasized in trees and leaves. Silver was used for water. "Modeling" showed a strong Mughal influence, especially in night scenes. Late 18th-century paintings suffered from harsh colors and excessive ornamentation, losing their picturesque beauty. Some were left unfinished, with heavy, ill-proportioned female faces, elongated eyes, heavy chins, and foreheads adorned with sandalwood paste. The text suggests a possible political and cultural connection with the Deccan, leading to Southern stylistic influences in Bundi art. By the 18th century, Bundi colors became flat, lifeless, and faded, gradually losing their natural beauty.
Kishangarh Style: The Kishangarh style is noted for its unique contribution. Fine artists were present from the time of Raja Mansingh (1658-1706), whose active portrait shows Mughal influence from Aurangzeb's era. The spiritual aspect in human forms began here and deepened in the portraits of Raja Sheshmal. The influence of Aurangzeb and Farrukhsiyar periods is evident in the depiction of courtiers, landscapes, and natural settings. Bhawani Das was a renowned painter of this era.
- Golden Age of Kishangarh: Sawant Singh (poet Nagridas) began his poetic compositions in 1723, focusing on Radha's transcendent beauty. This ideal became central to Kishangarh painters, ushering in a revolution in the art. The period from 1735 to 1757 was the golden age of Kishangarh art, with Nihal Chand and other artists bringing Nagridas's poetry to life. Raja Raj Singh also commissioned portraits, court scenes, and hunting depictions.
- While depictions of Radha-Krishna's "leelas" (divine play) were common, the emotional depth, subtlety of imagination, symbolic representation, sensuality, psychological insight, keen observation, and peak human form achieved during Sawant Singh's reign infused all of Rajasthani art with renewed vitality. The paintings from this period are considered treasures of world art. The "Radha" by Nagridas and "Bani Thani" by Nihal Chand are placed with reverence alongside Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa."

Later Developments and Revival:

Widespread Centers: By the 17th century, painting centers proliferated in Mewar, Bundi, Ajmer, Bikaner, and other places. Ameer and Jodhpur also have a history of painting, though it appears more rudimentary and early.
Bikaner Style: By the late 17th century, a local style heavily influenced by Mughal art emerged in Bikaner, also showing Southern influences. This is evident in the elongated figures and distinctive depictions of trees, flowers, and leaves.
18th Century: The 18th century saw an explosion of paintings, with art studios opening in every state and even small principalities. Thousands of paintings were produced, with Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, and Bikaner being major centers. Paintings from Rasmanch in Jaipur are full of movement. The use of warm colors and vigor began to wane, with many paintings being ordinary.
Decline After 1850: After 1850, artistic merit gave way to mere craftsmanship, which also eventually declined. The value of paintings became comparable to market commodities.
Late 19th and Early 20th Century: Imitators of older paintings and artists influenced by European art and photography appeared. This period also saw the art revival initiated by Abanindranath Tagore in Bengal, which spread across India. Rajasthan contributed to this movement, with artists like Ramgopal Vijayavargiya, inspired by Shailendra Nath Dey, reawakening the moribund art of Rajasthan.
Contemporary Art: The text identifies three streams of contemporary Rajasthani painting:
1. Traditional Revivalists: Artists like Ramgopal Vijayavargiya, Govardhan Joshi, Ramnivas Verma, and Devakinandan Sharma.
2. Experimental Realists: Artists such as Bhuansingh Shekhawat and Bhavani Charan Guha.
3. Modern Art Experimenters: Artists like R.V. Sakhalkar, Ranjit Singh, and Jyotirman Swaroop.
The author concludes that the renaissance of art in Rajasthan is still in its infancy. He states that Rajasthan still needs to wait for tomorrow to reclaim the place that its 18th and 19th-century art held in world art.

In essence, "Rajasthani Chitrakala" by Parmanand Choyal provides a detailed historical overview of Rajasthani painting, tracing its origins, influences, regional variations (Mewar, Bundi, Kishangarh, Bikaner), and evolution through different periods, highlighting the impact of Mughal art and the eventual decline and subsequent revival efforts.