Pratyaksha Vichar - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Pratyaksha Vichar" by Sukhlal Sanghavi, focusing on its discussion of pratyaksha (direct perception):

The text "Pratyaksha Vichar" by Sukhlal Sanghavi delves into the intricacies of pratyaksha (direct perception) within Jain philosophy, contrasting it with other Indian philosophical schools and tracing the evolution of its definition.

1. Defining the Scope of Ancient Pratyaksha Definitions:

The author begins by questioning whether ancient Indian logicians (lakshanaka rishis) aimed to define only janya pratyaksha (produced or empirical perception) or a broader janya-nitya sadharana pratyaksha (common to both produced and eternal perception), as later Naiyayikas did. Sanghavi observes that ancient texts, even those not opposing God (like Naiyayikas and Vaisheshikas), primarily defined janya pratyaksha. There's no mention of nitya pratyaksha (eternal perception) or its possibility, especially not in the context of God. The text notes that while Nyaya-Vaisheshika established that the Vedas' authority stems from their human origin (paurusheyatva) rather than being uncreated (apaurusheyatva), they didn't explicitly identify God as the author. Instead, they attributed the Vedas to ancient sages, thus countering Mimamsakas and proving Vedic authority differently.

2. Evolution of the Definition of Pratyaksha:

Early Definitions: The author highlights that early definitions of pratyaksha consistently focused on janya pratyaksha.
The Emergence of Janya-Nitya Sadharana Pratyaksha: The concept of janya-nitya sadharana pratyaksha (common to both produced and eternal perception) arose later, particularly when theistic schools, like the later Naiyayikas, began to explicitly recognize God as the creator of the world and the Vedas, and thus as possessing eternal knowledge. This led to attempts to formulate a single definition of pratyaksha that could encompass both empirical perception and God's eternal perception.
The Jain Perspective: Jain philosophy, in its agamic tradition, defines pratyaksha strictly as that which is not mediated by sensory organs. They consider sensory-based perception, which other schools call laukika pratyaksha (worldly/empirical perception), as paroksha (indirect). However, the Jain logical tradition (tarkika parampara) distinguishes between samvyavaharika pratyaksha (practical or conventional direct perception, equivalent to laukika pratyaksha in other schools) and paramarthika pratyaksha (absolute or ultimate direct perception, akin to alaukika pratyaksha or extraordinary perception).

3. Types of Pratyaksha and their Classification:

Laukika vs. Alaukika: Most schools, except for Charvaka, accept both laukika (worldly/empirical) and alaukika (extra-worldly/extraordinary) forms of pratyaksha. Laukika pratyaksha is generally defined as knowledge arising from the contact of senses with present objects.
- Alaukika Pratyaksha:
  - Samkhya-Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Buddhist: Refer to it as yogic pratyaksha or yogic knowledge, arising from yogic powers.
  - Mimamsa: Although opposed to omniscience, they acknowledge a type of self-knowledge that is a component of liberation, which is essentially yogic or alaukika.
  - Vedanta: Considers God's witness-consciousness as the equivalent of alaukika pratyaksha.
  - Jainism:
    - Agamic Tradition: Considers only non-sensory perception as pratyaksha.
    - Tarkika Tradition: Classifies pratyaksha into samvyavaharika (empirical) and paramarthika (absolute). Paramarthika pratyaksha is explained as arising from labdhi or special psychic powers, which is akin to yogic virtues in Jain terminology.

4. The Nature of Alaukika Nirvikalpaka (Non-conceptual Extraordinary Perception):

There is no unanimity on whether alaukika pratyaksha is nirvikalpaka (non-conceptual) or savikalpaka (conceptual).

Buddhist and Shankar Vedanta: Argue that only laukika pratyaksha can be nirvikalpaka; savikalpaka is never directly perceived.
Ramanuja: Holds the opposite view, stating that no perception, whether laukika or alaukika, can be completely nirvikalpaka.
Nyaya-Vaisheshika, etc.: Believe that alaukika pratyaksha can be both savikalpaka and nirvikalpaka.
Jainism: Considers alaukika or paramarthika pratyaksha to be both. Avadhi darshana and kevala darshana (forms of direct visual perception) are nirvikalpaka. Avadhi jnana, manahparyaya jnana, and kevala jnana (forms of direct cognition) are savikalpaka.

5. The Determinant of Pratyaksha (Direct Perceptibility):

The criterion for something being called pratyaksha also varies across schools.

Neo-Shankara Vedanta: The determinant is the distinction between consciousness as the instrument of knowledge (pramana chaitanya) and consciousness as the object of knowledge (vishaya chaitanya).
Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Samkhya-Yoga, Buddhist, Mimamsaka: The determinant is being produced by contact (sannikarsa), whether that contact is laukika or alaukika.
Jainism:
- Agamic Tradition: The determinant is a sole reliance on the self (atmamatra sapekshatva).
- Tarkika Tradition: In addition to reliance on the self, it also implies being produced by senses and mind (indriya-manojanyatva). The Jain logical tradition is largely aligned with the Vedic schools in this regard.

6. The Scope of Pratyaksha:

Buddhist: Limits pratyaksha solely to nirvikalpaka knowledge.
All other schools (including Jainism): Accept pratyaksha in both nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka forms.

7. Addressing Deficiencies in Definitions:

Siddhasena Divakara: Introduced aparoksha (non-indirectness) as a general characteristic for both samvyavaharika and paramarthika pratyaksha. The author notes the potential influence of this definition on later thinkers like Bhasarvajna.
Maharshi Akalanka: Identified a flaw in defining pratyaksha solely as aparoksha, as it leads to mutual dependence when defining paroksha. Akalanka proposed that vishada (clarity) is the determinant of pratyaksha. This definition:
- Encompasses both empirical and absolute perception.
- Avoids the problem of mutual dependence by removing the term aparoksha.
- Clarified the meaning of vishada as appearing specially in relation to inference and other indirect means of knowledge.
Later Jain Logicians: Akalanka's emphasis on vishada became foundational for subsequent Jain logicians, who used terms like spashta (clear) or retained vishada. Even later scholars like Upadhyaya Yashovijayaji followed Akalanka's definition.

In essence, "Pratyaksha Vichar" meticulously examines the evolving understanding of direct perception across various Indian philosophical systems, highlighting the unique contributions and refinements made within Jainism, particularly the emphasis on vishada (clarity) as the core characteristic of pratyaksha by Akalanka.