Prakrit Vibhinna Bhed Aur Lakshan

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Prakrit Vibhinna Bhed aur Lakshan" by Subhash Kothari:

This document, authored by Subhash Kothari from the Prakrit and Jainology Department of Udaipur University, discusses the various branches and characteristics of Prakrit languages. It emphasizes that Prakrit belongs to the Middle Indo-Aryan languages and evolved from Vedic, Sanskrit, and Chhandas. The author argues that the nature of Prakrit is similar to Vedic, citing the shared use of svar bhakti (vowel insertion) in both. Therefore, it's logical to believe that Prakrit originated from Chhandas, which was the common vernacular of that era. Both secular Sanskrit and Sanskrit itself also evolved from Chhandas, making Sanskrit and Prakrit "sister languages" from an evolutionary perspective.

While the exact form of the original language or dialect of ancient India is unclear, the Aryans possessed their own language, which was influenced by other cultures, leading to the development of Chhandas. Scholars codified Chhandas in terms of its parts, sentences, sounds, and meanings, leading to the evolution of Prakrit as its refined form. Literarily documented Prakrit is traced back to the Middle Indo-Aryan period. A new phase began after the times of Buddha and Mahavir, and Prakrit advanced rapidly, breaking free from the confines of formal Sanskrit. It is suggested that the discussion of common, public interest topics in Sanskrit is a result of Prakrit's influence. Thus, in terms of time and scope, Prakrit's developmental period is considered the medieval era.

Etymology of the word 'Prakrit':

The word 'Prakrit' is derived from 'Prakriti'. There is considerable scholarly debate regarding the meaning of 'Prakriti'. The dominant view is that Sanskrit is the "Prakriti" or source language from which Prakrit emerged. Hemachandra states, "Prakritiḥ Saṃskṛtam, tatra bhavam tatam āgatam vā prākṛtam," meaning Prakriti is Sanskrit, and that which originates or comes from it is Prakrit. This view is supported by Markandeya and others like Lakshmidhar, Dhanika, Vasudeva, Singhadevagani, and Narasimha. Namisadhu, however, considers the natural speech of common people, devoid of grammatical rules, as the basis of Prakrit.

A deeper analysis of these derivations leads to the following interpretations:

• (a) Prakrit did not originate from Sanskrit; rather, "Prakritiḥ Saṃskṛtam" means that learning Prakrit is an attempt to understand Sanskrit. Hemachandra referred to Prakrit as the "womb" of Sanskrit in this context.
• (b) There is no inherent hierarchy between Sanskrit and Prakrit; both originated from Chhandas.
• (c) Minor differences in pronunciation create slight variations, but not enough to make them appear entirely opposite.

Branches of Prakrit:

The document then details several key branches of Prakrit:

1. Pali: This is the language of the religious scriptures of the Hinayana Buddhists. It's considered a type of Prakrit. The origin of the word 'Pali' is debated, with some linking it to 'pankti' (lineage) and others to 'pallī' (village). The latter connection suggests it's the language spoken in villages, leading scholar Gaiger to call it "Arsha Prakrit." The earliest use of 'Pali' is found in the 4th-century text Dipavamsa. Buddhists refer to it as Magadhi, implying an origin in Magadha, but the author disputes this, noting its similarity to the Girnar inscription of Ashoka, suggesting its origin in Western India and subsequent spread to Sri Lanka.

   • Characteristics: Uses only the dental 'sa' instead of 'sha', 'ṣa', and 'sa'; retains both 'ra' and 'la'; uses 'o' in the singular nominative case for masculine and neuter nouns instead of 'e'; omits ten sounds including 'ṛ', 'ṝ', 'l', 'e', 'o', 'ś', 'ṣ', visarga, aghoṣa, and jihvāmulaka; incorporates elements of various contemporary dialects in sound and form; predominantly uses tatsama (borrowed) words, followed by tadbhava (derived) and desya (native) words, with fewer foreign words; lacks the dual number in nouns and verbs; and has very few consonant-ending words.
   • Literature: Includes canonical texts like Tripitaka and non-canonical texts like Milinda-panha and Dipavamsa. While various grammatical works exist, they are not as comprehensive as those in Sanskrit or other languages. The literature is categorized into 84,000 dharmaskandhas, nine angas (including Sutta, Geyya, Vyakaraṇa, etc.), and five nikāyas (Dīgha, Majjhima, Saṃyutta, Aṅguttara, Khuddaka). It's also divided into Pali or Pitaka literature and Anupali and Anupitaka literature.

2. Shauraseni Prakrit: This is considered one of the earliest Prakrit languages, alongside Pali, Ardhamagadhi, and the Prakrits of inscriptions. Its characteristics are found in Kharosthi inscriptions and Kuvalayamala. Shauraseni is characterized by its Shauraseni nature. Markandeya divides it into three types: Kakeya, Shurasena, and Panchala. According to Sir George Grierson, its origin lies in northwestern Punjab and Afghanistan, and its influence is still visible in Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochistan, and Kashmiri languages. Examples of Shauraseni are found in Prakrit grammars and works like Hemachandra's Kumārapālacarita and Kāvyānuśāsana. No early literary examples of Shauraseni exist; Gunadhya's Bṛhatkathā (1st century) is no longer extant. The available Shauraseni examples are from the medieval period, prevalent from the 2nd to the 5th century CE.

   • Characteristics: Words at the beginning often change their third and fourth consonant to the first and second of the same class (e.g., gagana becomes kaganam); 'jña', 'nya', and 'ṇya' become 'jña' (e.g., prajñā to paññā); 'ṇa' and 'na' both become 'na' (e.g., guṇa to guna); 'ta' and 'da' become 'ta' (e.g., śata to sata, madana to madana); the fifth case singular of 'a'-ending nouns becomes 'āto' or 'ādu' (e.g., jināto); future tense 'ssi' becomes 'emya'; and the Shauraseni suffixes 'di' and 'de' are replaced by 'ti' and 'te' (e.g., ramati, ramate).

3. Paisachi: This is a very ancient Prakrit, counted alongside Pali, Ardhamagadhi, and the Prakrits of inscriptions. Its features are found in Kharosthi inscriptions and Kuvalayamala. Its nature is Shauraseni. Markandeya divides Paisachi into three types: Kakeya, Shurasena, and Panchala. According to Sir George Grierson, its primitive location was northwestern Punjab and Afghanistan, and its influence is still evident in the languages of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and Kashmir. Examples of Paisachi are found in Prakrit grammars like Prakrit Prakash, Hemachandra's Prakrit Grammar, Ṣaḍbhāṣācandrikā, and Prakrit Sarvasva, as well as in Hemachandra's Kumārapālacarita and Kāvyānuśāsana. No early literary examples of Paisachi are found. Gunadhya's Bṛhatkathā (1st century) is no longer extant. The currently available examples are from the medieval period, prevalent from the 2nd to the 5th century CE.

   • Characteristics: (1) At the beginning of words, the third and fourth consonants of a class are replaced by the first and second of the same class (e.g., gagana to kaganam). (2) 'jña', 'nya', and 'ṇya' become 'jña' (e.g., prajñā to paññā, puṇya to puñña). (3) Both 'ṇa' and 'na' become 'na' (e.g., guṇa to guna, kanaka to kanaka). (4) 'ta' and 'da' become 'ta' (e.g., śata to sata, madana to madana, deva to teya). (5) The fifth case singular of 'a'-ending nouns becomes 'āto' or 'ādu' (e.g., jināto). (6) Future tense 'ssi' becomes 'emya'. (7) Shauraseni's 'di' and 'de' suffixes become 'ti' and 'te' (e.g., ramati, ramate).
   • Chūlikā Paisachi: A variant of Paisachi, possibly related to Kashgar, with features found in inscriptions from Chinese Turkestan. Hemachandra and Lakshmidhar have documented its characteristics. It is mentioned alongside Paisachi in Hemachandra's Sanskrit lexicon Abhidhānacintāmaṇi.
     • Characteristics: (1) 'ra' is optionally replaced by 'la' (e.g., gaurī to golī, caraṇa to calaṇa, rājā to lājā). (2) Similar to Paisachi, the third and fourth consonants of a class are replaced by the first and second (e.g., naga to nako, jha to chava, jhara to chalo, ṭhakka to ṭhakka). (3) This rule does not apply to initial letters (e.g., gati remains gati, dharma to dhammo, ghana to ghanokha).

4. Ardhamagadhi: The etymology suggests "half Magadhi," but this doesn't fully apply to the language of Jain scriptures. Lord Mahavir delivered his sermons in Ardhamagadhi, a language that could be understood by humans, animals, and birds. This is supported by the Ovavāiya Sūtra. Its origin is believed to be the region between West Magadha and Shurasena (Mathura). As the first Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva, was from Ayodhya, the language's origin is considered to be there. Some scholars also identify it as the language of Kashi-Koshala. Sir A.G. Bhandarkar places its origin in the 2nd century CE, stating that no literary Prakrit predates the 1st or 2nd century CE. Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterji dates it to the 3rd century CE.

   • Classifications: (a) Hoernle divides all Prakrit dialects into Shauraseni and Magadhi, with Ardhamagadhi emerging from their gradual convergence. (b) Markandeya states that Magadhi itself is Ardhamagadhi due to its proximity to Shauraseni.
   • Characteristics: (a) The uncombined 'k' between two vowels is often replaced by 'g', and in many cases by 't' and 'y' (e.g., prakalpa to pagappa, ākāśa to āgāsa, niṣedhaka to nisevaga). (b) The uncombined 'y' between two vowels usually remains or becomes 't' and 'y' (e.g., āgama remains āgama; āgamana becomes āgamaṇa, with 'g' changing to 'ṇ*). (c) Uncombined 'c' and 'j' between two vowels become 't' and 'y' (e.g., nārāca to nārāta, pravacana to pāvaṭaṇa; pūjā to pūtā, pūyā). (d) 'v' between two vowels becomes 'v' (e.g., vāyava to vāyava, priya to piya, indriya to indhiya). (e) In Ardhamagadhi prose and poetry, there are differences in forms. The Magadhi-like 'e' is used for the nominative singular, and often the Shauraseni-like 'au' is used in poetry. (f) Dental sounds become retroflex (e.g., sthita to ṭhipa, kṛtvā to kaṭṭu). (g) Ardhamagadhi contains many words absent in Maharashtri, such as aṇuvīti, āghaveta, āvakaṁma, kaṇhui, porevacca, vakka, vius, etc.

5. Jain Maharashtri: Besides the Agam scriptures in Ardhamagadhi, there is a vast literature in Prakrit covering ethics, philosophy, logic, astrology, and geography. The language of this literature is termed Jain Maharashtri by grammarians. While it shows many Maharashtri characteristics, Ardhamagadhi influence is also evident. Some Jain Maharashtri works are ancient, belonging to the first period of second-level Prakrits, such as Pañña texts, Niyuktis, Paumachariu, and Upadeśamālā. It is also used in commentaries on Agam texts like Bṛhatkalpabhāṣya, Vyavahārasūtrabhāṣya, Viśeṣāvaśyaka bhāṣya, and Niśītha cūrṇi. Works like Samarāiccahā, Kuvalayamālā, Vāsudeva hiṇḍī, and Paumachariu also employ this language.

   • Characteristics: Many characteristics of Ardhamagadhi are present. (1) 'k' often becomes 'g'. (2) Lost consonants are replaced by 'ū'. (3) Similar to Ardhamagadhi, 'ṇ' becomes 'n' at the beginning and in the middle of words. (4) The verb root 'as' takes the form 'āsī' in all tenses, numbers, and persons, similar to Ardhamagadhi. Remaining rules are similar to Maharashtri Prakrit.

6. Inscriptional Prakrit: The earliest forms of inscriptional Prakrit are found in Ashoka's edicts, written in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. Ashoka's rock and pillar edicts, numbering around thirty, are composed in the regional languages of the time. They can be divided into three categories: (a) Punjab inscriptions, which do not show the elision of 'r'. (b) Eastern India inscriptions, where 'r' is consistently replaced by 'l', similar to Magadhi. (c) Western India inscriptions, associated with the language of Ujjain, which bears resemblance to Pali, dating back to 250 BCE.

7. Shauraseni Prakrit: This is considered one of the major Prakrit languages that evolved from the Middle Indo-Aryan period due to regional variations. Both Magadhi and Shauraseni are considered ancient, with Ashoka's inscriptions referencing both. Thus, inscriptional evidence for Shauraseni's existence dates back to the 3rd century BCE. Shauraseni was the dialect of the Shurasena region (Braj region - Mathura) and evolved from its local vernacular. As the center of the Middle Country, Shauraseni was heavily influenced by Sanskrit. Due to the migration of the Jain Sangha during the Maurya period, it also spread to South India.

   • Scholarly Opinions: (1) Bharata suggests using Shauraseni in colloquial dialogue in plays. (2) Hemachandra mentions Shauraseni after Arsha Prakrit, followed by Magadhi and Paisachi. (3) Markandeya derives Prachya from Shauraseni. (4) Pischel places Shauraseni first among contemporary spoken languages. Shauraseni is also found in the verse parts of plays like Mṛcchakaṭika, Mudrārākṣasa, and Karpūramañjarī, shedding light on its antiquity. The Shauraseni in Ashvaghosha's plays is considered contemporary to Ashoka. The Shauraseni in Bhasa's plays is likely from the 1st or 2nd century CE.
   • Characteristics: (1) The sound 'ṛ' at the beginning of words changes to 'i', 'a', or 'u' (e.g., ṛddhi to iḍiha, kaṭu to kaṭvā, pṛthivi to puḍhavi). (2) The third consonant of a word is used; 't' becomes 'd', and 'th' becomes 'gh' (e.g., ceti to cedi, vāgha to vātha). (3) In the Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama, 't' is sometimes found as 'y' or remains as 't' (e.g., rahita to rahiye, akṣātīta to akkhātīdo, vītarāga to vītarāga). (4) Jain Shauraseni, like Ardhamagadhi, changes 'k' to 'g' (e.g., vedaka to vedaga, svaka to saga). (5) In Shauraseni, intervocalic 'k', 'g', 'c', 'j', 't', 'd', 'v', 'p' are optionally elided (e.g., gati to gai, sakalam to sayaṁ, vacana to vayaṇe). (6) In terms of forms, it leans towards Sanskrit, reflecting its Middle Country influence, but also shares significant similarities with Maharashtri. (7) The suffix 'tvā' is replaced by 'iṇa', 'iṇa', or 'vattā' (e.g., paritvā to paḍhia, paḍhiṇa, paḍhitvā).

8. Magadhi: The oldest mentions of Magadhi are found in Ashoka's inscriptions in the northern and eastern parts of his empire, such as Khalshi, Mirat, Barabar, Ramgarh, and Jagadh. Later examples appear in dramatic Prakrit. Magadhi is also mentioned in Vararuci's Prakritaprakāśa, Chanda's Prakritualakṣaṇa, Hemachandra's Siddhahemacandra, and Kramadishvara's Saṅkṣiptasāra. Magadha is the origin of Magadhi. The presence of Magadhi outside its borders is due to its propagation as a state language. Ashoka's inscriptions and Ashvaghosha's plays represent the first phase of Magadhi, while later plays and Prakrit grammars provide examples of medieval Magadhi.

   • Scholarly Mentions: (1) Bharata mentions Magadhi in his Natyashastra. (2) Markandeya, in his Prakrit Sarvasva, states that residents of the inner palace, miners, distillers, horse keepers, those in distress, and monks and ascetics also use this language.
   • Characteristics: (1) 'r' is always replaced by 'l' (e.g., nara to nala, kara to kala). (2) 'ṣa', 'śa', and 'sa' are always replaced by the palatal 'śa' (e.g., puruṣa to puliśa, sārasa to śālaśa). (3) Conjunct 'ṣa' and 'sa' become the dental 'sa' (e.g., śuṣka to śuska, kaṣṭa to kasta, skhalati to skhaladi). (4) 'kṣa' becomes 'ska' (e.g., rākṣasa to rāskasa). (5) The nominative singular of 'a'-ending masculine nouns becomes 'e' (e.g., jina to jiṇe, puruṣa to puliśe). (6) The singular and plural forms of 'asmad' (I/we) become one form. (7) 'r' always becomes 'l' (e.g., rājā to lājā). (8) In Magadhi, 'j', 'p', and 'y' are replaced by 'y'. (a) janapada becomes jaṇaveda ('j' to 'y', 'p' to 'v'). (b) jānāti becomes yāṇādi ('j' to 'y', 'ṇ' to 't'). (9) Magadhi shows variations in the first, fourth, fifth, and sixth cases.

9. Maharashtri: This is the language of Prakrit poetry and songs, with examples found in works like Setubandha, Gāthāsaptashatī, and Kumārapālacarita. Maharashtri gained such prominence in songs that it became customary to speak it in dramatic verses as well, leading to its use by poets from Kalidasa onwards. Dr. Hoernle believes Maharashtri did not originate solely in Maharashtra but signifies the language of a "great nation," including Rajputana and Madhya Pradesh, hence its designation as the primary Prakrit. Grierson considers it the mother of modern Marathi, confirming Maharashtra as its origin.

   • Scholarly Views: Hemachandra identifies Maharashtri as the Prakrit language, and its nature is generally considered Sanskrit-like by grammarians like Yanda, Lakshmidhar, and Markandeya. Dr. Manmohan Ghosh considers it a branch that emerged after Shauraseni.
   • Literature: Maharashtri Prakrit is rich in literature, with Gāthāsaptashatī, Rāvaṇavaha (by Pravarasena), and Vajjalagga (by Jayavallabha) being immortal works. Some texts by Shvetambara Jains are also written in it. It shows the influence of Ardhamagadhi.
   • Characteristics: (1) Different vowels replace each other in various places (e.g., samṛddhi to sāmid'dhi, īṣat to īsi, harati to hīra). (2) Intervocalic light stops (k, t, p, g, ḍh, v, etc.) are often elided (e.g., prākṛta to pāua, gacchati to gacchai). (3) Sibilants 's' and 'ś' often become 'r' (e.g., tasya to tāha, pāṣāṇa to pāhāṇa). (4) 'ai' is not used in Maharashtri; it is generally replaced by 'ha' or the adjectival form 'ai' (e.g., śaila to saila, airāvaṇa to erābaṇa, sainya to sainya, dain'ya to deiṇṇa). (5) Depending on usage, an anusvara is added to the first, second, or third letter (e.g., aśru to asu, traskam to tasam). (6) Initial 'a' becomes 'ja'. (7) 'r' often becomes 'l'. (8) 'ṣp' and 'sp' become 'ph'. (9) The nominative singular of 'a'-ending masculine nouns takes the suffix 'o'; the fifth case singular can have 'to', 'o', 'u', 'hi', or elision of the case marker. The fifth case plural can take suffixes like 'hinto' and 'sunto'. (10) 'hi' precedes future tense suffixes. (11) Present, future, past, and imperative suffixes can be replaced by 'jj' and 'jjā'. (12) In 'ti' and 'te' suffixes, 't' is elided. (13) In passive or verbal nouns, 'ia' and 'ijja' are used as suffixes.