Prakrit Ke Prakirnak Sahitya Ki Bhumikaye - Book Summary

This summary is based on the provided text from the book "Prakrit Ke Prakirnak Sahitya Ki Bhumikaye" by Sagarmal Jain.

The book is a collection of essays by Dr. Sagarmal Jain, a renowned scholar of Jainology and Indian studies. The essays focus on Prakrit Prakirnak Sahitya, which refers to a category of Jain literature characterized by its miscellaneous or varied subject matter, often compiled by individual ascetics. The book is part of a larger series of Dr. Sagarmal Jain's works compiled and published by Prachya Vidyapith, Shajapur.

The core of the book lies in its detailed analysis and summary of several key Prakirnak texts. Here's a breakdown of the main texts discussed:

1. Devendra Stava (देवेन्द्र स्तव)

Context: The essay begins by establishing the importance of scriptures in various religious traditions, likening the Agam literature in Jainism to the Vedas for Hindus, Tripitaka for Buddhists, etc. It highlights that Jain Agamas are not considered divinely revealed but rather the collected teachings of enlightened beings (Arhats and Rishis).
Classification of Agamas: The essay details the classification of Jain scriptures, particularly the Angabahya literature, as mentioned in the Nandi Sutra. It explains the division into Kālika and Utkālika categories and notes that Devendra Stava is listed under the Utkālika section of Angabahya texts.
Nature of Devendra Stava: It identifies Devendra Stava as a hymn, but distinguishes it from purely ethical or behavioral texts. Its primary content is the description of celestial beings (Devas) and their cosmology, with the ultimate aim of highlighting the greatness of the Tirthankaras.
Authorship and Dating: The essay strongly argues for Rishipalita as the author of Devendra Stava, refuting claims of Virabhadra. Based on textual evidence and historical analysis of the lineage of Jain Acharyas, it places the composition of Devendra Stava around the 1st century BCE.
Comparison with other Stotras: It traces the development of Jain devotional literature, starting from Viratthui in the Sutrakritanga, then Namottuna (Shakrastava), and finally Chaturvinsati Stava (Logassa). It highlights how Devendra Stava predates Chaturvinsati Stava in its absence of explicit requests for boons.
Linguistic and Stylistic Features: The essay discusses the language, noting the influence of Maharashtri Prakrit, which is also found in other ancient texts. It points out a unique stylistic feature where the narrative is presented as a dialogue between a householder and his wife, resolving the wife's curiosity about the Devedra. This style is considered unusual for Agamas and is interpreted as a way to present astronomical and geographical information within a secular framework, thus shielding the Tirthankaras from potential scientific discrepancies.

2. Tandul Vaicharik (तंदुल वैचारिक)

Classification: This text is also classified under Angabahya, Avashyak-Vyatikta, Utkalika Agamas, similar to Devendra Stava.
Meaning of the Name: The title Tandul Vaicharik is explained as a discourse on the quantity of rice consumed daily by a thousand-year-old human, signifying a focus on detailed calculations related to human life.
Content: The essay provides a comprehensive overview of the text's content, which includes:
- Gestation: Detailed description of pregnancy, conception, fetal development, and the transmission of characteristics from parents.
- Ten Stages of Human Life: An analysis of the ten stages of a human life span, from infancy to old age, emphasizing the impermanence of life and the need for spiritual practice.
- Attributes of Chakravartis and Tirthankaras: Descriptions of the physical and spiritual qualities of great beings.
- Dietary Calculations: Detailed calculations of food consumption over a hundred-year lifespan.
- Concepts of Time: Explanations of subtle time units like samaya, ucchvas, lav, and muhurta.
- Body Anatomy: A detailed, though perhaps not scientifically precise by modern standards, description of the human body's structure, including bones, nerves, and cavities.
- Impurity of the Body: A strong emphasis on the physical body's inherent impurity and the futility of attachment to it.
- The Nature of Women: A critical portrayal of women, highlighting perceived negative traits like deceitfulness and fickleness, with the aim of encouraging detachment and renunciation. This is presented as a common theme in Shramana traditions, stemming from a male-centric societal perspective and a focus on spiritual detachment.
Author and Dating: While no explicit author is mentioned, the text's inclusion in ancient Agamas and commentaries suggests an antiquity prior to the 5th century CE. Its content and style are analyzed in relation to other Agamas like Sthananga and Bhagavati Sutra.

3. Mahapratyakhyana (महाप्रत्याख्यान)

Classification: This is a Prakirnak text, also classified under Avashyak-Vyatikta, Utkalika literature.
Meaning: Mahapratyakhyana means "great renunciation" or "great abstention," specifically referring to the practice of Samadhi Marana (a consciously undertaken and well-prepared death).
Content: The essay describes Mahapratyakhyana as a text detailing the process of Samadhi Marana for Sthavirakalpika and Jinakalpika ascetics. It highlights the difference in their practices: Sthavirakalpikas undertaking a longer, more gradual process (sometimes over twelve years) while residing in one place, whereas Jinakalpikas would undertake it during their wandering life when an opportune moment arose.
Author and Dating: Similar to other Prakirnak texts, the author is unknown, but its mention in Nandi Sutra and Pakshika Sutra places its origin before the 5th century CE.
Comparison with other texts: It discusses how Mahapratyakhyana is included in the larger compilation Maranavibhāgadi which contains several texts related to Samadhi Marana.
Critique of Prakirnak Acceptance: The essay delves into the controversy surrounding the acceptance of Prakirnak literature, particularly by the Sthanakavasi and Terapanthi traditions. It addresses criticisms based on perceived contradictions with core Agamas, such as the use of "Savadhya Bhasha" (sinful language), astrological references, and differing views on concepts like the number of rebirths. The author defends the Prakirnak literature, arguing that these criticisms are often misinterpretations or based on a lack of understanding of the texts' allegorical or practical context, and that the core message of renunciation and spiritual practice remains valid.

4. Dwipsagar Pragnapti (द्वीपसागरप्रज्ञप्ति)

Classification: This text is identified as a Prakirnak and is noted as being listed among the four Pragnaptis in the Sthananga Sutra.
Content: The essay describes Dwipsagar Pragnapti as a detailed account of the structure of islands and oceans beyond the Manushottara mountain in the middle world (Madhyaloka). It covers:
- Cosmology: Descriptions of mountains like Manushottara, Anjana, Dadhirmukha, Kundala, and Ruchaka mountains, along with their associated cities, capitals, and the divine beings residing there.
- Celestial Geography: Details about the configuration of islands, oceans, and their dimensions.
- Description of Divine Beings: Mentions of various classes of celestial beings and their residences.
- Jain Temples and Idols: Descriptions of Jain temples and idols situated on these mountains, highlighting their jewel-encrusted nature.
Authorship and Dating: The author remains anonymous, which is considered characteristic of ancient texts. Its mention in the Sthananga Sutra (dated around the 5th century CE) suggests its composition before this period.
Comparison with other Texts: The essay compares the cosmological details with other Jain texts like Suryapranapti, Jambudwip Pragnyapti, Jivajivabhigama Sutra, and Rajprashniya Sutra, noting similarities and differences in descriptions of geographical features and celestial beings. It also briefly touches upon its mention in Digambara tradition's Shatkhandagama and Tiloyapannatti.
Significance: It is highlighted as a significant early work providing a structured description of the Jain cosmos, particularly the regions beyond the known Manushottara mountain.

5. Gani Vidya (गणिविद्या)

Classification: This is identified as a Prakirnak text.
Meaning of the Name: Gani refers to an accomplished ascetic who leads a community, and Vidya refers to knowledge. Thus, Gani Vidya is the knowledge possessed by a community leader, particularly concerning astrology and auspicious timing.
Content: The essay explains that Gani Vidya is a text focused on Jyotish-Nimitta (astrology and divination) as applied to monastic life. It details the auspicious and inauspicious timings for key events in a monk's life, such as:
- Dates (Tithi): Classifying dates as auspicious (Nanda, Bhadra, Jaya, Purna) and inauspicious (Rikta), and their suitability for various religious observances.
- Nakshatras (Lunar Mansions): Explaining the 27 Nakshatras, their classifications (e.g., Sthira, Chara, Ugra), and their influence on monastic activities like initiation, studying, serving the guru, and Samadhi Marana.
- Karanas: Describing the Charas (movable) and Sthira (fixed) Karanas and their auspiciousness for specific rituals.
- Planetary Days (Graha Divas): Relating the days of the week to ruling planets and their impact on initiation and other significant events.
- Muhurtas (Auspicious Times): Detailing the thirty Muhurtas of a day and night and their suitability for various activities like initiation, Samadhi Marana, and study.
- Shakun (Omens): Discussing the interpretation of auspicious and inauspicious omens (Shakun) for monks.
- Lagna (Auspicious Ascendant): Explaining the use of Lagna to determine auspicious times for spiritual practices.
- Nimitta (Divination): The role of omens and portents in guiding spiritual conduct.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown, but its mention in Nandi Sutra and Pakshika Sutra suggests it predates the 5th century CE. The presence of the concept of planetary days (Vara) which became prominent in Indian tradition around the Gupta period (post-4th century CE) is noted as a potential indicator of its dating. It's suggested that the text likely originated between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE.
Significance: It is identified as possibly the earliest Jain text focusing on astrological interpretations for monastic activities. The essay also discusses the influence of Vedic traditions on some of its astrological concepts.

6. Gacchāchār (गच्छाचार)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Etymology: The term "Gacchāchār" is derived from "Gach" (community of ascetics) and "Āchār" (conduct).
Historical Context of "Gach": The essay traces the evolution of the term "Gach." It explains that in ancient times, Jain monastic communities were organized into Ganas, Shakhas, and Kulas. The term "Gach" for a monastic community gained prominence later, likely after the 6th century CE, gradually replacing earlier terms. The earliest mention of "Gach" in the context of a monastic community is found in Ogha Niyukti (around 6th-7th century CE), and its widespread use is seen from the 10th-11th centuries CE with the emergence of distinct monastic lineages like Khara-tar Gach.
Content: Gachāchār focuses on the principles of good conduct within a monastic community (Gach). It contrasts the ideal conduct prescribed by the Agamas with the corrupt practices that emerged over time. The text emphasizes:
- The Importance of a Good Gach: Distinguishing between virtuous and corrupt monastic communities and advising adherence to the former.
- Qualities of an Ideal Acharya: Describing the exemplary conduct of a spiritual leader, emphasizing knowledge of scriptures, detachment, and guidance for disciples.
- Critique of Corrupt Acharyas: Criticizing those who are morally compromised, fail to uphold monastic vows, are attached to worldly pleasures, or mislead their disciples.
- Disciples' Duty: Highlighting the disciple's obligation to respect and follow the guru's teachings, even if they seem harsh, provided they lead to spiritual progress.
- Renunciation and Detachment: Stressing the importance of detachment from the body, worldly possessions, and desires for spiritual liberation.
- Ethical Conduct: Discussing various ethical precepts for monks and nuns.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown. However, based on its criticism of corrupt practices, its reference to Mahanishitha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara Sutras, and the emergence of the term "Gach," the text is placed between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. It also draws parallels with the critiques found in Sambodh Prakaran by Acharya Haribhadra (8th century CE).

7. Veer Stava (वीरस्तव)

Classification: Identified as a Prakiriṇaka.
Early Mentions: Its earliest mention is found in Vidhimargaprakarana (14th century CE), suggesting it was recognized as a Prakirnaka by that time. It is not found in earlier texts like Nandi Sutra or Pakshika Sutra.
Nature of the Text: Virastava is a hymn dedicated to Tirthankara Mahavira. It traces the evolution of Jain devotional literature, starting from the simple praise in Sutrakritanga's "Viratthui" to more elaborate stotras.
Content: The essay highlights that Virastava contains a vyutpattiparak stuti (etymologically derived praise) of Mahavira, explaining the significance of 26 different names attributed to him (e.g., Arhat, Jina, Vir, Sarvajna, etc.). The author's purpose is to praise Mahavira's virtues and personality.
Comparison with other Stotras: It contrasts this text with Namottuna (general praise of Arhats) and Chaturvinsati Stava (Logassa), which includes requests for boons like health and enlightenment, suggesting an influence from Hindu traditions in later devotional literature. Virastava, however, focuses on praise without direct supplication.
Author and Dating: While the author is not explicitly named, the text's inclusion in Prakirnak lists and its style suggest it is an independent composition. The essay notes that Virabhadra is sometimes cited as the author of other Prakirnaka texts and speculates it might be his work, though this is not definitively proven. The dating is uncertain but placed after earlier devotional works and before Devendra Stava.

8. Santhāragapaipaiṇayaṁ (संस्थारक प्रकीर्णक)

Classification: A Prakirnaka.
Meaning: Santhara refers to Samadhi Marana (prepared death by voluntary fasting). The text is an exposition on this practice.
Context and Dating: The essay notes that Santhara is not explicitly mentioned in early classifications like Nandi Sutra or Pakshika Sutra but appears in later compilations like Vidhimargaprakarana (14th century CE). However, its inclusion in texts like Chandravedhyaka, Mahapratyakhyana, and Maranavibhāgadi suggests an earlier origin, possibly pre-5th century CE, but its absence in early commentaries of Nandi and Pakshika is significant. Its mentions in later commentaries suggest it was recognized by the 6th-7th century CE.
Content: The core of the essay is a detailed discussion of Samadhi Marana:
- Definition and Significance: Explains Samadhi Marana as a voluntary, conscious, and prepared death undertaken with equanimity, often by fasting (Anashana). It's contrasted with unintentional death (Akama Marana).
- Conditions and Types: Differentiates between Sagari Santhara (undertaken under specific unavoidable circumstances like imminent danger) and Samanya Santhara (undertaken due to old age or incurable illness).
- Procedure: Outlines the ritualistic steps for undertaking Santhara, including preparing the deathbed, seeking forgiveness, renouncing worldly attachments, and maintaining a calm state of mind.
- Ethical Debate: Discusses the ethical implications, contrasting it with suicide, and emphasizing that it's not a desire for death but a detachment from the body and an acceptance of its natural end when spiritual goals are met or when further life would compromise spiritual purity.
- Comparative Analysis: Compares Jain Samadhi Marana with similar concepts in Buddhism (e.g., Harikiri) and Hinduism (e.g., Jal Samadhi, Agni Samadhi), highlighting differences, particularly the Jain emphasis on non-violence and the avoidance of immediate or violent death methods.
- Examples: Presents narratives of ascetics who achieved Samadhi Marana through various forms of suffering, showcasing their fortitude and detachment, such as Enikaputra, Virabhadra (in some contexts), Chilatiputra, Gaj Sukumal, Kartikarya, and Abhayaghosh. These narratives are analyzed for their historical and comparative significance across Jain traditions and also in relation to similar stories in other texts like Bhagavati Aradhana.
Critique and Comparison: The essay critically examines arguments against Santhara, particularly from modern perspectives, and contrasts it with the Jain philosophy of non-attachment. It defends Santhara as a spiritual practice aimed at spiritual liberation rather than a morbid desire for death or an act of despair.

9. Chatur Sharan (चतुःशरण)

Classification: A Prakirnak text, specifically mentioned as Kushalanubandhi Chatur Sharan and Chatur Sharan.
Content: The text focuses on the concept of Chatuh Sharana (Four Refuges) in Jainism. It explains that these are the primary sources of refuge for a spiritual aspirant:
- Arhats: The enlightened ones who have attained liberation.
- Siddhas: The liberated souls residing in the highest heavens.
- Acharyas, Upadhyayas, Sadhus: The spiritual leaders and guides.
- Dharma: The teachings of the Tirthankaras.
Purpose: The text aims to illustrate the importance of taking refuge in these four entities for spiritual purification, progress, and ultimately, liberation (Moksha). It describes the virtues of each refuge and the benefits of seeking solace in them.
Structure: The essay notes that the text is divided into four main sections: Arthadhikar (Principle of Meaning), Chatuh Sharana Gaman (Going to the Four Refuges), Dushkrit Garha (Condemnation of Wrongdoings), and Sukrit Anumodana (Approbation of Good Deeds).
Comparison with Buddhist Tradition: A significant portion of the essay compares the Jain Chatuh Sharana (Refuge in Arhat, Siddha, Sadhu, Dharma) with the Buddhist Trisharana (Refuge in Buddha, Dharma, Sangha). It highlights similarities and differences, particularly in the emphasis on the Sangha (community) and the concept of the Buddha versus the Arhat and Siddha.
Author and Dating: While Virabhadra is suggested as a possible author for Kushalanubandhi Chatur Sharan, his identity and date are speculative. The text's inclusion in later works like Vidhimargaprakarana suggests it predates the 14th century CE but its absence in earlier classifications places it after the 5th-6th centuries CE. The presence of the concept of "Vara" (days of the week) is also discussed as a dating indicator.

10. Dwipsagar Pragnyapti (द्वीपसागरप्रज्ञप्ति)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Content: This text is a cosmological treatise detailing the geography and structure of the Jain universe, particularly the islands and oceans beyond the Manushottara mountain. It provides precise measurements and descriptions of:
- Mountains: Manushottara, Anjana, Dadhirmukha, Kundala, Ruchaka, and Ratikara mountains, including their dimensions, locations, and the divine beings and temples situated on them.
- Islands and Oceans: Descriptions of various islands (Dwipa) and oceans (Samudra) beyond the human realm (Manusha Kshetra), such as Nandishvara Dvipa, Aruna Dvipa, Aruna Samudra, Ruchaka Dvipa, and Ruchaka Samudra.
- Celestial Geography: Details about the configuration of cosmic elements, including the number of Chandra (moons) and Surya (suns) in different regions.
- Jain Temples and Idols: Descriptions of numerous temples and idols adorned with jewels.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown, considered an ancient Shruta Sthavira. Its mention in Sthananga Sutra places it before the 5th century CE. Its later mention in Nandi Sutra and Pakshika Sutra reinforces this antiquity. The essay suggests a dating between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE.
Comparison with other Texts: The essay extensively compares the cosmological details with Sthananga Sutra, Surya Pragnyapti, Jivajivabhigama Sutra, Rajprashniya Sutra, Tiloyapannatti (Digambara), Harivansh Purana, and Lokavibhaga, noting similarities and discrepancies in measurements and names, particularly regarding the number and placement of mountains and cities.
Significance: It is recognized as a primary Jain source for detailed geographical descriptions of the extra-human world. The comparison with other texts highlights the evolution and variations in cosmological narratives within different Jain traditions.

11. Gacchāchār (गच्छाचार)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Etymology: The term "Gacchāchār" refers to the conduct within a monastic community (Gach).
Historical Context of "Gach": The essay traces the historical usage of the term "Gach," differentiating it from older terms like Gana, Shakha, and Kula. It establishes that "Gach" gained prominence for monastic communities after the 6th century CE, with distinct Gachas emerging around the 10th-11th centuries CE.
Content: Gachāchār critically examines monastic conduct, distinguishing between ideal adherence to Agamic rules and the corrupt practices that developed over time. It focuses on:
- Ideal vs. Corrupt Gachs: Differentiating between communities that maintain strict adherence to scriptural norms and those that have become lax or compromised.
- Qualities of Acharyas: Describing the virtues expected of spiritual leaders and identifying traits of those who are corrupt or misleading.
- Disciples' Responsibilities: Emphasizing the disciple's duty towards the guru and the community.
- Renunciation: Reinforcing the Jain emphasis on detachment from worldly possessions and physical comforts.
- Critique of Syncretism: Highlighting the problem of adopting practices or beliefs from other traditions that deviate from core Jain principles.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown. However, its criticism of specific practices and its use of the term "Gach" suggest a date after the 8th century CE. The author's reference to Mahanishitha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara Sutras and the shared verses with Sambodh Prakaran by Acharya Haribhadra (8th century CE) place it likely between the 8th and 10th centuries CE.

12. Virastava (वीरस्तव)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Meaning: "Virastava" means "Praise of the Hero," referring to Lord Mahavira.
Content: The essay discusses the development of Jain devotional literature. Virastava is presented as a text praising Lord Mahavira by analyzing and deriving meaning from 26 of his epithets. It emphasizes that Mahavira is portrayed as a supreme human leader, rather than a purely supernatural being, who presented a path to liberation.
Author and Dating: The author is not explicitly mentioned. It's speculative that it might be by a later Virabhadra. Its mention in Vidhimargaprakarana (14th century CE) confirms its recognition by that time, but its absence in earlier texts suggests it's a later composition, possibly after the 6th century CE, and potentially around the 10th century CE if the speculated author is considered.
Significance: It reflects the growing importance of devotional literature and the use of etymological explanations to praise Tirthankaras, a trend that became more prominent over time, influencing later works like Jina Sahasranama.

13. Santhāragapaipaiṇayaṁ (संस्थारक प्रकीर्णक)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Meaning: Santhara refers to Samadhi Marana (prepared death by voluntary fasting). The text is an exposition on this practice.
Content: The essay provides a detailed discussion of Samadhi Marana:
- Definition and Significance: Explains Samadhi Marana as a voluntary, conscious, and prepared death undertaken with equanimity, often by fasting (Anashana). It's contrasted with unintentional death (Akama Marana).
- Conditions and Types: Differentiates between Sagari Santhara (undertaken under specific unavoidable circumstances like imminent danger) and Samanya Santhara (undertaken due to old age or incurable illness).
- Procedure: Outlines the ritualistic steps for undertaking Santhara, including preparing the deathbed, seeking forgiveness, renouncing worldly attachments, and maintaining a calm state of mind.
- Ethical Debate: Discusses the ethical implications, contrasting it with suicide, and emphasizing that it's not a desire for death but a detachment from the body and an acceptance of its natural end when spiritual goals are met or when further life would compromise spiritual purity.
- Examples: Presents narratives of ascetics who achieved Samadhi Marana through various forms of suffering, showcasing their fortitude and detachment, such as Enikaputra, Virabhadra (in some contexts), Chilatiputra, Gaj Sukumal, Kartikarya, and Abhayaghosh. These narratives are analyzed for their historical and comparative significance across Jain traditions and also in relation to similar stories in other texts like Bhagavati Aradhana.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown. Its absence in early Agamas and commentaries suggests an origin after the 5th-6th centuries CE. Its presence in later works like Vidhimargaprakarana (14th century CE) confirms its recognition by then. The essay suggests a possible dating between the 7th and 8th centuries CE.

14. Chatur Sharan (चतुःशरण)

Classification: A Prakirnak text, also mentioned as Kushalanubandhi Chatur Sharan.
Meaning: Chatuh Sharana refers to the "Four Refuges" in Jainism.
Content: The text explains the importance of seeking refuge in the Arhats, Siddhas, Acharyas/Sadhus, and the Dharma preached by the Tirthankaras. It details the virtues of each refuge and the spiritual benefits derived from taking shelter in them. It also includes sections on condemning wrongdoings (Dushkrit Garha) and approving good deeds (Sukrit Anumodana).
Comparison with Buddhism: The essay draws a parallel between the Jain Chatuh Sharana and the Buddhist Trisharana (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), highlighting similarities in the concept of taking refuge for spiritual guidance and the emphasis on the community (Sangha vs. Sadhu).
Author and Dating: Virabhadra is suggested as a possible author, possibly from the 10th century CE, though this is speculative. The text's absence in earlier lists but presence in later ones like Vidhimargaprakarana suggests a date after the 6th century CE and before the 14th century CE.

15. Dwipsagar Pragnyapti (द्वीपसागरप्रज्ञप्ति)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Content: This text is a detailed cosmological description of the Jain universe beyond the Manushottara mountain. It meticulously describes islands, oceans, mountains like Anjana, Ratikara, Kundala, and Ruchaka, along with their dimensions, divine residences, and Jain temples.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown. Its mention in the Sthananga Sutra (around 5th century CE) indicates its existence before that period. The essay suggests a dating between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE.
Comparison with other Texts: The essay provides extensive comparisons with other Jain cosmological texts like Sthananga Sutra, Surya Pragnyapti, Jivajivabhigama Sutra, Rajprashniya Sutra, Tiloyapannatti (Digambara), Harivansh Purana, and Lokavibhaga. It notes similarities and differences, particularly in geographical measurements and the names of mountains and divine beings. It also discusses its place within the broader classification of Jain Agamas and Prakirnakas.
Significance: It's considered a crucial source for understanding the detailed geographical and cosmological framework of the Jain universe, especially the regions beyond the immediate human world.

16. Gacchāchār (गच्छाचार)

Classification: A Prakirnak text.
Etymology: The term "Gacchāchār" refers to the conduct within a monastic community (Gach).
Historical Context of "Gach": The essay traces the historical usage of the term "Gach," differentiating it from older terms like Gana, Shakha, and Kula. It establishes that "Gach" gained prominence for monastic communities after the 6th century CE, with distinct Gachas emerging around the 10th-11th centuries CE.
Content: Gachāchār critically examines monastic conduct, distinguishing between ideal adherence to Agamic rules and the corrupt practices that developed over time. It focuses on:
- Ideal vs. Corrupt Gachs: Differentiating between communities that maintain strict adherence to scriptural norms and those that have become lax or compromised.
- Qualities of Acharyas: Describing the virtues expected of spiritual leaders and identifying traits of those who are corrupt or misleading.
- Disciples' Responsibilities: Highlighting the disciple's duty towards the guru and the community.
- Renunciation: Reinforcing the Jain emphasis on detachment from worldly possessions and physical comforts.
- Critique of Syncretism: Highlighting the problem of adopting practices or beliefs from other traditions that deviate from core Jain principles.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown. However, its criticism of specific practices and its use of the term "Gach" suggest a date after the 8th century CE. Its references to Mahanishitha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara Sutras and shared verses with Sambodh Prakaran by Acharya Haribhadra (8th century CE) place it likely between the 8th and 10th centuries CE.

17. Virastava (वीरस्तव)

Classification: Identified as a Prakirnaka.
Meaning: "Virastava" means "Praise of the Hero," referring to Lord Mahavira.
Content: The essay discusses the development of Jain devotional literature. Virastava is presented as a text praising Lord Mahavira by analyzing and deriving meaning from 26 of his epithets. It emphasizes that Mahavira is portrayed as a supreme human leader, rather than a purely supernatural being, who presented a path to liberation.
Author and Dating: The author is not explicitly mentioned. Virabhadra is speculated as a possible author (possibly from the 10th century CE), but this is not definitively proven. Its mention in Vidhimargaprakarana (14th century CE) confirms its recognition by that time, but its absence in earlier texts suggests it's a later composition, possibly after the 6th century CE.
Significance: It reflects the growing importance of devotional literature and the use of etymological explanations to praise Tirthankaras, a trend that became more prominent over time, influencing later works like Jina Sahasranama.

18. Santhāragapaipaiṇayaṁ (संस्थारक प्रकीर्णक)

Classification: A Prakirnaka.
Meaning: Santhara refers to Samadhi Marana (prepared death by voluntary fasting). The text is an exposition on this practice.
Content: The essay provides a detailed discussion of Samadhi Marana:
- Definition and Significance: Explains Samadhi Marana as a voluntary, conscious, and prepared death undertaken with equanimity, often by fasting (Anashana). It's contrasted with unintentional death (Akama Marana).
- Conditions and Types: Differentiates between Sagari Santhara (undertaken under specific unavoidable circumstances like imminent danger) and Samanya Santhara (undertaken due to old age or incurable illness).
- Procedure: Outlines the ritualistic steps for undertaking Santhara, including preparing the deathbed, seeking forgiveness, renouncing worldly attachments, and maintaining a calm state of mind.
- Ethical Debate: Discusses the ethical implications, contrasting it with suicide, and emphasizing that it's not a desire for death but a detachment from the body and an acceptance of its natural end when spiritual goals are met or when further life would compromise spiritual purity.
- Examples: Presents narratives of ascetics who achieved Samadhi Marana through various forms of suffering, showcasing their fortitude and detachment, such as Enikaputra, Virabhadra (in some contexts), Chilatiputra, Gaj Sukumal, Kartikarya, and Abhayaghosh. These narratives are analyzed for their historical and comparative significance across Jain traditions and also in relation to similar stories in other texts like Bhagavati Aradhana.
Author and Dating: The author is unknown. Its absence in early Agamas and commentaries suggests an origin after the 5th-6th centuries CE. Its presence in later works like Vidhimargaprakarana (14th century CE) confirms its recognition by then. The essay suggests a possible dating between the 7th and 8th centuries CE.

19. Chatur Sharan (चतुःशरण)

Classification: A Prakirnak text, also mentioned as Kushalanubandhi Chatur Sharan.
Meaning: Chatuh Sharana refers to the "Four Refuges" in Jainism.
Content: The text explains the importance of seeking refuge in the Arhats, Siddhas, Acharyas/Sadhus, and the Dharma preached by the Tirthankaras. It details the virtues of each refuge and the spiritual benefits derived from taking shelter in them. It also includes sections on condemning wrongdoings (Dushkrit Garha) and approving good deeds (Sukrit Anumodana).
Comparison with Buddhism: The essay draws a parallel between the Jain Chatuh Sharana and the Buddhist Trisharana (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), highlighting similarities in the concept of taking refuge for spiritual guidance and the emphasis on the community (Sangha vs. Sadhu).
Author and Dating: Virabhadra is suggested as a possible author, possibly from the 10th century CE, though this is speculative. The text's absence in earlier lists but presence in later ones like Vidhimargaprakarana suggests a date after the 6th century CE and before the 14th century CE. The mention of "Vara" (days of the week) is also discussed as a dating indicator.