Prakrit Ka Jain Agam Sahitya Ek Vimarsh

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This book, "Prakrit ka Jain Agam Sahitya Ek Vimarsh" (A Discussion on Jain Agam Literature in Prakrit), by Prof. Sagarmal Jain, published by Prachya Vidyapith Shajapur, offers a detailed exploration and critical analysis of Jain Agam literature, particularly its language, evolution, and relationship with other ancient Indian traditions.

The author begins by establishing the fundamental distinction between two parallel streams of Indian culture: the Shraman tradition and the Vedic tradition. Jainism and its culture are presented as integral to the Shraman stream. While the Vedic tradition is based on the Vedas and emphasizes pravritti (activity, worldly engagement) and grihastha-jivana (household life), the Shraman tradition, rooted in the Agamas, focuses on nivritti (renunciation, detachment), sanyasa (asceticism), and liberation from the suffering of worldly existence. The Shraman perspective views the body as a bond and the world as an ocean of suffering, prioritizing detachment, renunciation, and self-realization (moksha/nirvana). Conversely, the Vedic tradition values worldly life, seeking fulfillment of biological needs, mutual cooperation, and prosperity through prayers and rituals, and generally lacks the concepts of renunciation and liberation.

The book traces the historical presence of the Shraman tradition from the Indus Valley Civilization and mentions its echoes in the Rigveda through references to Vratyas and Vatrashana munis. While the direct literature of this ancient Shraman tradition is lost, its influence is seen in the Upanishads, which, despite some Vedic elements, are fundamentally rooted in the Shraman worldview, advocating spiritual values and critiquing Vedic rituals. The Upanishads are seen as a synthesis of Vedic and Shraman cultures, exemplifying a harmonious balance between worldly and spiritual pursuits. The author notes that remnants of other Shraman traditions, now lost or absorbed into broader Hindu traditions, are found in Upanishadic literature, the Pali Tripitaka, and the Jain Agamas. Figures like Yagyavalkya, Narada, and Kapila appear in various texts, linking them to this ancient Shraman heritage.

A significant portion of the book is dedicated to comparing Vedic literature with Jain Agam literature.

• Origin and Authorship: Vedic texts, particularly the Vedas, are considered apurusheya (not authored by humans) and eternal by Mimamsa philosophers, while Naiyayikas attribute them to God. Jain Agamas, in contrast, are considered purusheya (authored by humans), where the core teachings (artha) are expounded by Tirthankaras and the textual form (shabda) is compiled by Ganadharas and other Acharyas. However, the Jain tradition also views the Agamas as eternal in terms of their meaning, reflecting the continuous stream of Tirthankara teachings.
• Language and Meaning: Vedic literature prioritizes the shabda-rupa (word form), often disregarding clarity of meaning. Jain Agamas, however, emphasize artha (meaning), allowing for variations in word form as long as the meaning remains consistent. This focus on meaning led to linguistic changes in Jain Agamas over time, unlike the largely immutable form of the Vedas, some of which remain enigmatic.
• Subject Matter: Vedas primarily contain prayers for worldly fulfillment and descriptions of natural forces, alongside astronomical-geographical details and narratives. Jain Agamas focus on spiritual and ascetic teachings, guiding individuals to conquer the senses and desires. They detail the conduct of monks and householders, along with stories related to tapas (penance) and karma. Astronomical and geographical discussions are found in specific Jain texts like Jambudvipa-prajnapti.
• Upanishads and Agamas: The author highlights significant overlap between the content of ancient Jain Agamas (like Achāranga and Rishibhāṣita) and the Upanishads, referencing shared sages and teachings.

The book then delves into the classification and authenticity of Agams. The author asserts that Agams are the scriptural basis of Jainism, analogous to the Vedas in Hinduism or the Tripitaka in Buddhism. While not considered apurusheya or divine revelations, they are the compilation of the teachings of liberated beings (Arhats and Rishis). The author acknowledges the Digambara tradition's view that current Agams are not authentic due to interpolations but argues for their historical and doctrinal validity, stating they represent a crucial historical narrative of the Jain Sangha over a millennium.

A detailed discussion follows on the classification of Agamic literature according to the Shvetambara tradition:

• Angas (12): Lists the twelve canonical Angas, including the partially lost Drishtivada.
• Upangas (12): Lists the twelve Upangas. The author notes that the Digambara tradition accepts the Angas but considers their content largely lost, and they do not recognize the Upangas as defined by the Shvetambaras.
• Mulā-sutras: Discusses the varying definitions of Mulā-sutras, with common texts being Achāranga, Sūtrakṛtanga, Sthānanga, Samavāyanga, Vyākhyāprajñapti, and Jñātādharmakathā.
• Chheda-sutras: Lists the six Chheda-sutras, noting differing views on the inclusion of Mahānishitha and Jīyakalpa among different Shvetambara sects.
• Prakīrṇakas: Lists the ten Prakīrṇakas, with variations in specific titles and the inclusion of other texts.
• Chūlika-sūtras: Mentions Nandi-sutra and Anuyogadvāra as Chūlika-sūtras.

The author critically examines the authenticity and dating of the Agams. He refutes the notion that all Agams were compiled in the 5th century CE at the Valabhi council, arguing that this was a period of compilation and scripturalization, not creation. He places the earliest parts of some Agams, like the first Skandha of Achāranga and Rishibhāṣita, as pre-Mauryan (5th-4th century BCE), being even older than Ashokan Prakrit inscriptions. He highlights the linguistic and stylistic proximity of Achāranga's first Skandha to Mahavir's teachings, emphasizing its originality and lack of later embellishments.

The book then discusses the various recensions (Vāchanas) of the Agams:

• First Vāchana (Pataliputra): Attributed to Sthūlibhadra after a great famine, aiming to reorganize the lost or fragmented knowledge. Only eleven Angas were successfully compiled, with Drishtivada and its contents being largely lost.
• Second Vāchana (Kumari Parvat, Odisha): Occurred during the reign of Kharavela in the 2nd century BCE, with limited details available but focused on preserving the tradition.
• Third Vāchana (Mathura): Led by Aryaskandila in the 3rd century CE. This Vāchana is linked to the propagation of the Mathura Agams, which influenced the Yapaniya tradition and showed the impact of Sauraseni Prakrit.
• Fourth Vāchana (Vallabhi): Contemporaneous with the Mathura Vāchana, led by Aryanagarjuna. It is suggested that differences in views between Skandila and Nagarjuna might have necessitated separate Vāchanas.
• Fifth Vāchana (Vallabhi): Led by Devardhigani Kshamashramana in the late 5th century CE. This Vāchana focused on compiling and editing the Agams into written form, integrating elements from both Mathura and Vallabhi traditions and potentially incorporating later material. The author notes that while Devardhigani standardized the texts, this process might have involved interpolations and omissions, though the core was based on tradition.

The author stresses that the Agams reflect the historical development of Jainism, showing the evolution of its practices and beliefs, including the growing sectarianism. He uses examples like the contrasting treatment of Rishis in Rishibhāṣita versus later texts to illustrate this point.

Regarding language, the Shvetambara Agams are generally considered to be in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, though with later influences from Sauraseni and Maharashtri Prakrit. The Digambara and Yapaniya traditions' canonical-equivalent texts are primarily in Sauraseni Prakrit.

The subject matter of the Agams is described as largely didactic, ethical, and narrative, with a focus on accessibility for the common person. The author contrasts this with the more profound philosophical and theoretical discussions found in Sauraseni texts. He posits that the Ardhamagadhi Agams, being more elementary, are likely older and served as a foundation for the later Sauraseni literature.

The book highlights the unique characteristic of factual compilation in Ardhamagadhi Agams, acknowledging occasional inconsistencies and contradictions as evidence of their gradual, unforced compilation and preservation of genuine historical developments.

The author concludes by urging scholars to study the Agams, especially the Ardhamagadhi ones, with impartiality, rising above sectarian biases. He emphasizes the need for critical analysis of their content and language to understand the genuine historical evolution of Jainism and its literature. He calls for future generations of scholars to undertake this objective study, drawing parallels with the works of scholars like Bechardasji and referencing the contributions of both Western and Indian scholars in the field.

In essence, "Prakrit ka Jain Agam Sahitya Ek Vimarsh" is a scholarly work that provides a comprehensive overview of Jain Agam literature, its historical context, linguistic nuances, classificatory systems, and the complex process of its formation and transmission, emphasizing the importance of a balanced and critical approach to its study.