Prakrit Bhasha

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Prakrit Bhasha" by Prabodh Bechardas Pandit, based on the provided pages:

Book Title: Prakrit Bhasha Author: Prabodh Bechardas Pandit Publisher: Parshwanath Vidyapith Context: This book is a publication of lectures delivered by Dr. Prabodh Bechardas Pandit at the Banaras Hindu University as part of the Parshwanath Vidyashram lecture series. The lectures were delivered in Hindi, despite the author's native language being Gujarati.

Overall Theme: The book delves into the historical significance and linguistic evolution of Prakrit languages in India, positioning them as a crucial bridge between the ancient Indo-Aryan languages (like Vedic Sanskrit) and the modern Indo-Aryan languages.

Key Points and Summary of the Lectures:

• Introduction and Purpose (Pages 3-4):

  • The Parshwanath Vidyashram aimed to organize lectures by experts on Jainism and Prakrit languages.
  • These lectures, given by Dr. Pandit in September 1953, aim to highlight the importance of Prakrit studies for a complete understanding of India's linguistic history, especially in relation to modern Indian languages.
  • The author expresses hope that his lectures will draw the attention of scholars to the detailed study of Prakrit.
  • Gratitude is extended to those who facilitated the lectures and their publication.

• The Historical Role of Prakrit (Pages 5-8):

  • Indo-European Roots: The history of Aryan languages is ancient, with connections to the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian language families.
  • Aryan Languages in India: When Aryan peoples arrived in India, their language encountered and eventually dominated various indigenous (non-Aryan) languages. This period of cultural competition, from the Vedic to the Brahmanical period, represents the first phase of Indian Aryan language.
  • Prakrit as a Transition: The development of Aryan language in India after this initial phase is characterized by dynamism in space and time, marking the beginning of the second phase, Prakrit. This phase is crucial because it represents the transition from ancient Indian Aryan to modern Indian Aryan languages.
  • Diversity of Prakrits: The interaction between the Aryan language and the diverse pre-Aryan languages of India likely led to the emergence of various Prakrit dialects.
  • Literary Prakrit: Despite the expected diversity, the available Prakrit literature, excluding early inscriptions like those of Ashoka, largely exhibits a single, standardized literary form. This "Scholarly Prakrit" (Shisht Prakrit) often followed the patterns of Sanskrit literature.
  • Prakrit and Apabhramsha: The evolution continued through Apabhramsha, which is considered the precursor to modern Indian Aryan languages. However, even Apabhramsha dialects showed less regional variation compared to the later modern languages.
  • The Influence of Conservatism: The author suggests that the tendency of Indian writers and scholars to always favor ancient, "scholarly" (Shisht) language, whether Sanskrit or Prakrit, led to this uniformity in literary Prakrit, often disconnecting it from contemporary spoken languages. This gap between literary and spoken language has been a historical feature of India.
  • Timeline: The Prakrit period is generally considered the Middle Indo-Aryan stage, beginning around the time of Buddha and Mahavira and ending roughly five centuries before the earliest writers of modern Indian languages like Vidyapati and Dnyaneshwar. The New Indo-Aryan languages began to emerge from the 10th century CE.
  • The Nature of Linguistic Change: Languages are not static, especially in a vast country like India. Prakrits developed in various regions and times, leading to different names. Just as Latin evolved into Spanish, French, Provençal, etc., Prakrit evolved into Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Hindi, and so on. The author emphasizes that linguistic study should focus on the characteristics of a language rather than merely its name.

• The Historical and Comparative Method (Pages 8-14):

  • Evolution of Linguistics: The study of language evolution gained momentum about two centuries ago, paralleling the study of human evolution. Comparative linguistic methods, influenced by Darwinian thought, were adopted.
  • The Role of Sanskrit: The discovery of Sanskrit by Western scholars in the early 19th century provided a significant impetus to linguistics, with German scholars playing a leading role in establishing historical and comparative linguistics.
  • Indo-European Hypothesis: The comparison of ancient European languages with Sanskrit led to the hypothesis of a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The significant similarities in grammar and vocabulary across languages like Hittite, Tocharian, Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, etc., pointed to a single ancestral language.
  • Reconstruction of PIE: While daughter languages exist, the original PIE itself does not. Its reconstruction is a hypothetical process essential for understanding the development of its branches.
  • Linguistic Paleontology: The study of general vocabulary, particularly names of flora and fauna, can offer clues about the original habitat of PIE speakers.
  • The Term "Indo-European": The name reflects the geographical spread from India to Europe. The author notes that German scholars sometimes used "Indo-Germanic." He also discusses the possibility of using "Aryan" as a term for this language family, provided its scope as a linguistic designation (and not solely racial) is understood. The author himself uses "Aryan" to refer to the language group.
  • Indo-Iranian Branch: This branch is of particular importance, showing significant similarities between ancient Indian and ancient Iranian languages, suggesting a common origin. The term "Iran" itself is derived from "Aryana."
  • Early Aryan Migrations: Evidence suggests Aryans moved through Central Asia and Mesopotamia before reaching their Indo-Iranian homeland.

• Early Indo-Aryan Language and its Development (Pages 14-19):

  • Indo-Iranian Features: Key phonetic changes distinguish Indo-Iranian from PIE, such as the transformation of PIE vowels 'e' and 'o' into 'a'.
  • Vedic Sanskrit: The earliest form of Indian Aryan language is found in the Vedas. The Vedic language reflects the traditions, cosmology, and ritual practices of the Aryan people who arrived in India.
  • Social Structure and Language: The Aryan social structure, with priests and warriors, influenced their literature. The Vedic literature, primarily focused on rituals, was considered "priestly poetry" and maintained a high standard of linguistic purity. Repetition of phrases and verses is common, indicating established priestly vocabulary and usage.
  • Atharvaveda: While somewhat contemporary with the Rigveda, the Atharvaveda reflects more aspects of daily life and popular beliefs. Its language and vocabulary differ from the Rigveda. The priestly class eventually incorporated and standardized it, presenting it in a more scholarly form.
  • Linguistic Diversity in the Rigveda: The compilation of the Rigveda shows a reflection of the language situation at the time of its codification, with occasional inclusion of forms from different dialects, such as variations in the treatment of 'r' and 'l'.
  • The Influence of the Brahmanas: The Brahmanical literature continued the tradition of Vedic language, establishing a standard of "scholarly" (Shisht) language that was the language of the priests and the cultural centers of the Aryans. Panini's grammar standardized this language, which we now call Sanskrit.
  • Exclusion of Dialects: Throughout this period, the spoken dialects outside the "priestly" and "scholarly" circles were not accepted into the mainstream literary tradition.
  • The Impact of Jainism and Buddhism: Jainism and Buddhism, emerging in the 5th century BCE, adopted the local dialects of Eastern India to spread their teachings to the masses. This gave a new life to these dialects, which began to rival Sanskrit, even if they were colloquially known as "Prakrit."

• Prakrit as a Literary Force and its Influence on Sanskrit (Pages 19-21):

  • Prakrit's Competition with Sanskrit: As Prakrit began to be used for religious and popular literature, it started to compete with Sanskrit.
  • Sanskrit's Adaptation: Sanskrit responded by becoming more versatile and encompassing popular themes beyond rituals and philosophy. It became the language of a wider population across India.
  • Sanskrit's Transformation: While Sanskrit's usage expanded, its language also changed, becoming less complex grammatically and incorporating new vocabulary. However, it often maintained a scholarly facade over a Prakrit foundation (as seen in works like the Mahabharata).
  • Classical Sanskrit: Classical Sanskrit, as it developed later, became highly artificial, characterized by complex sandhi rules, intricate compound words, and vocabulary intended for scholars. It moved further away from the natural flow of language evolution.

• Dialectal Divisions of Prakrit and their Study (Pages 21-30):

  • Buddhist and Jain Literature: The main branches of Prakrit literature are Buddhist (Pali) and Jain (Agamas). While originating around the same time and place, their development diverged.
  • Pali Literature: The compilation of Buddha's teachings involved multiple councils over centuries. The language of the original teachings was likely Magadhi. However, the participation of monks from various regions in these councils, and the subsequent transcription of texts in Sri Lanka, led to a mixture of dialects. Pali is considered a "kunstsprache" (art language) or "mixed language," with ongoing debate about the specific dialectal influences.
  • Jain Agamas: Mahavira, also from the East, preached in the vernacular of Magadha. The compilation of his teachings into Agamas also involved councils over several centuries. The language of the Agamas is called Ardhamagadhi.
  • Ardhamagadhi: While the Agamas are considered "evolved Prakrit," some of their older sections might represent an earlier stage. Ardhamagadhi, though originating in the East, shows influences from West-Central Indian dialects over time, particularly in the use of 's' instead of 'sh' and 'o' instead of 'e' in certain forms.
  • Ashoka's Inscriptions: Ashoka's inscriptions, dated between 270-250 BCE, are considered the first linguistic survey of India. They exhibit dialectal variations across his vast empire, providing crucial insights into the spoken languages of that era.
  • Regional Variations in Ashoka's Inscriptions:
    • North-West: Inscriptions from Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra show influences from Iranian dialects and exhibit specific phonetic features like the development of 'r' from 'l' in some instances.
    • Girnar (West): The language here shows a connection to literary Pali and influences from Central India, possibly influenced by the dialect of Gujarat and Saurashtra.
    • Gangetic Plain to Mahanadi (East-Central): The inscriptions in this region largely reflect the official language and show fewer regional variations.
    • South: Inscriptions in the South, where Aryan languages were not dominant, primarily reflect the Eastern official language with some Western influences.
  • Non-Indian Prakrit: Prakrit texts found outside India, like the Kharosthi Dhammapada and Niya Prakrit documents, show developed grammatical forms, sometimes reflecting developments that occurred later in India (e.g., in the Apabhramsha period). These texts, being preserved outside the direct influence of Indian Sanskrit scholarly tradition, might represent more dynamic linguistic changes.
  • Prakrit in Sanskrit Dramas: The use of different Prakrits for different characters in Sanskrit dramas reflects a perceived hierarchy of dialects, with Magadhi often used for mockery and Shauraseni for women and the less refined. However, this usage is more of a literary convention than a direct reflection of spoken dialects. Ashvaghosha's dramas provide an earlier example of Prakrit usage, showing forms closer to ancient Magadhi and Ardhamagadhi.
  • Prakrit Language Classification: The author suggests a four-stage development of Prakrit languages:
    1. Early Prakrit: Examples in Ashoka's inscriptions and older Pali texts. Characterized by the loss of *r and *l, simplification of consonant clusters, and the beginning of voicing of intervocalic consonants.
    2. Middle Prakrit: Includes Niya Prakrit, Ashvaghosha's dramas, the Prakrit Dhammapada, and Kharosthi inscriptions. Further development of consonant voicing and the beginning of spirantization.
    3. Late Prakrit: Literary Prakrits, dramatic Prakrits, and grammatical Prakrits. These show remnants of dialects but are largely standardized literary forms, often influenced by Sanskrit.
    4. Apabhramsha: The precursor to modern Indo-Aryan languages, primarily a literary stage.

• Later Development of Prakrit and its Characteristics (Pages 43-58):

  • Standardization: Prakrits continued to evolve, leading to standardized literary forms like Shauraseni and Maharashtri. These are seen as historical stages of literary Prakrit rather than strictly regional dialects.
  • Phonetic Changes: Key phonetic developments include the spirantization of intervocalic stops (e.g., k > g > h), the complete loss of intervocalic consonants, and changes in vowel sounds. The author notes that these changes, particularly spirantization, were likely facilitated by the existing phonetic system of the language and possibly influenced by substratum languages.
  • Loss of Consonants and its Impact: The loss of final consonants in Prakrit led to words ending in vowels, affecting noun declensions and grammatical gender. This necessitated the development of postpositions to convey grammatical relationships that were previously indicated by case endings.
  • The "Substratum" Theory: The author discusses the influence of non-Aryan (substratum) languages on the development of Aryan languages in India. While recognizing the potential for such influence (e.g., in the development of retroflex consonants), he emphasizes that the internal phonetic system of the language is the primary driver of change.
  • The Unity of Indian Aryan Languages: Despite the spread across diverse regions and contact with various substratum languages, Indian Aryan languages exhibit a remarkable degree of unity. The author attributes this to the influence of the scholarly tradition and the preservation of a standardized literary language, which prevented fragmentation.
  • The Need for Further Research: The author highlights the importance of scholarly editing and analysis of Jain Agamas, inscriptions, and other Prakrit texts to gain a more complete understanding of the evolution of Indian languages. He calls for a unified approach to studying Indian languages and literature, breaking down the compartmentalized academic approach.
  • The Role of Jain Literature: The systematic editing and study of Jain Agamas are crucial for understanding the Middle Indo-Aryan period and its connection to both Vedic Sanskrit and modern Indian languages. This research will help create Prakrit dictionaries and grammars, leading to a more comprehensive linguistic history.

Conclusion: Dr. Pandit's lectures emphasize that Prakrit languages are not merely a simplification of Sanskrit but a dynamic stage in the evolution of Indo-Aryan languages, shaped by internal phonetic changes and the cultural and linguistic interactions within India. He advocates for a deeper, more integrated study of Indian languages and literature, with a particular focus on the vast but under-researched corpus of Jain Prakrit literature.