Prakrit Aur Apbhramsa Jain Sahitya Me Krishna - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text about Krishna in Prakrit and Apabhramsa Jain literature:

Book Title: Prakrit aur Apbhramsa Jain Sahitya me Krishna (Krishna in Prakrit and Apabhramsa Jain Literature) Author: Sagarmal Jain

This book, "Krishna in Prakrit and Apabhramsa Jain Literature" by Sagarmal Jain, delves into the portrayal and significance of Krishna within the Jain tradition, specifically in Prakrit and Apabhramsa literature. The author highlights that while both Rama and Krishna are revered figures in Indian culture, Krishna's character held greater literary sway in the early medieval period. Krishna is presented as a multifaceted personality – a mischievous child, a romantic youth, a brave protector of dharma and society, a skilled politician, and an enlightened spiritual guide. This complexity made him more impactful than Rama, whose character was more popularly disseminated through Tulsidas's "Ramcharitmanas."

Krishna's Place in Jain Tradition:

Integration of Narratives: The Jain tradition has sought to integrate the narratives of both Rama and Krishna. While there are numerous Jain texts on Rama, the Jain Agama (scriptures) contain more detailed descriptions of Krishna's life than Rama's. Rama is only mentioned by name in the Agamas, with no biographical details.
Connection to Arishtanemi: Krishna's life in Jain tradition is intrinsically linked to the 22nd Tirthankara, Arishtanemi. This connection grants Krishna a more prominent position in the Agamas than Rama.
Shalaka Purushas: Both Rama and Krishna are counted among the Shalaka Purushas (distinguished individuals). Rama is recognized as Baladeva, and Krishna as Vasudeva. The Vasudeva position is considered more significant as the regulator of the governing principles, while Baladeva is merely an associate.
Future Tirthankara: Significantly, Krishna is also accepted as the 12th Tirthankara in the future, a status that represents the highest spiritual attainment in Jainism. This further emphasizes Krishna's importance to Jains.

Krishna in Jain Agamas:

Early Agamas (Pre-Christian Era): Ancient Agamas like Acharanga, Rishibhashita, Sutrakritanga, Uttaradhyayana, and Dashavaikalika do not provide detailed accounts of Krishna's life. Rishibhashita mentions the teachings of Varishana Krishna, but his connection to Devaki's son Krishna is unclear. The Uttaradhyayana Sutra, in its chapter on "Rathenemi" (Rathenemija), mentions Rama and Keshav (Krishna) as sons of King Vasudeva of Shauripura and his queens Rohini and Devaki, respectively. This is considered the earliest literary reference to Krishna in Jain tradition, detailing his role in arranging Rajimati's marriage to Arishtanemi.
Second Level Agamas (1st-2nd Century CE): The Samavāyānga is a key text where Krishna's narrative begins to expand.
- Samavāyānga: The latter part of the Samavāyānga lists the 54 Uttam Purushas (excellent beings), including 9 Baladevas and 9 Vasudevas. Krishna is identified as the ninth Vasudeva, with Vasudeva and Devaki as his parents. It also describes the wealth, physical strength, and attire of Vasudevas and Baladevas, noting the similarities with Vaishnava traditions. These details are likely additions to the original text.
- Jñātādharmaka-thā: This text, dated around the 2nd century CE, mentions Krishna in its chapters on Shailaka and Draupadi. The Draupadi chapter, while focusing on her past and present lives, provides details about Krishna. It presents a Jain interpretation of Draupadi's five husbands, explaining it through her past life's nidāna (intention/vow). This section portrays Krishna and the Pandavas as followers of Jainism and criticizes Narada as undisciplined. The narrative includes Krishna's role in finding Draupadi after her abduction by Padmanabha, his interaction with Kunti, and his decision to banish the Pandavas to Pandu-Madura. This version differs from Hindu traditions, notably the absence of the Mahabharata war and the specific conflict with Padmanabha.
- Shailaka Chapter (Jñātādharmaka-thā): This chapter describes Krishna's capital, Dwarika, its dimensions, and its splendor, comparing it to Indra's Alkapuri. It mentions Krishna as the Vasudeva king of Dwarika, detailing his vast family, army, and courtiers, including Baladeva, Pradyumna, Shamba, Rukmini, and many others. Krishna's reign extended to the Vaidhyata mountain in the north and the salt ocean in other directions. This chapter also highlights Krishna and his retinue visiting Arishtanemi and listening to his teachings, leading to the renunciation of Thavvachaputra.
- Prashnavyakaraṇa-sutra: This text also elaborates on Krishna's kingdom and family, adding details not found in Jñātādharmaka-thā. It mentions Krishna's 16,000 queens and recounts his battles against various figures like Mushtika, Chāṇūra, Kālīya Naga, Yamalarjuna, Mahashakuni, Putana, Kamsa, and Jarāsandha, marking his victory over Jarāsandha as crucial for attaining the Vasudeva status.
- Antakṛtdaśā: This text, considered not later than the 6th-7th century CE, is significant for its detailed discussion of Krishna's life events and family. The first five of its eight sections and their forty-nine chapters are dedicated to Krishna and his relatives.
  - The first two sections describe ten paternal uncles of Krishna (sons of Andhakavṛṣṇi) and four more maternal uncles, all of whom were initiated by Arishtanemi.
  - The third section discusses thirteen individuals, including six brothers of Krishna (sons of Devaki and Vasudeva, raised by Sulasa) and Krishna's younger brother, Gajasukumala. It also names other brothers (Sārana, Dāruka, Anādṛṣṭi) and three nephews (sons of Baladeva).
  - The fourth section lists five more brothers of Krishna (sons of Vasudeva and Dharini), Krishna's sons Pradyumna and Shāmba, his grandson Aniruddha, and two cousins (sons of Samudravijaya).
  - The fifth section names Krishna's eight chief queens (Padmini, Gauri, Gandhārī, Lakṣmaṇā, Susīmā, Jāmbvatī, Satyabhāmā, Rukmiṇī) and two daughters-in-law, all of whom decide to renounce the world upon hearing the prophecy of Dwarika's destruction.
  - Dwarika's Destruction and Krishna's Future: The eighth section of Antakṛtdaśā provides unique information. Krishna, upon seeing his family members initiated by Arishtanemi, feels regret for not renouncing worldly possessions himself. Arishtanemi explains that Vasudevas are born with specific intentions (nidāna) which prevent their renunciation. Krishna then asks about his death and future. Arishtanemi prophesies that the destruction of Dwarika will be caused by the Yadavas' intoxication, leading to the sage Dvāyapana's anger, who will become an Agnikumar deity. Krishna, separated from his family, will journey south with Balarama. He will be shot by Jara (mistaking him for a deer) in the Kausambhavana garden and will be reborn in the third earth before becoming the 12th Tirthankara named Amama in Bharatakshetra. Krishna then encourages the residents of Dwarika and his family to seek initiation from Arishtanemi, leading to the renunciation of many.
  - The Story of Gajasukumala: The text details the story of Gajasukumala, Krishna's younger brother. Due to a prophecy of eight identical sons born to Devaki, and also to Sulasa's son being stillborn, a deity named Hariṇegameshi exchanges the infants. Thus, Devaki's first six sons are raised by Sulasa. These six brothers later become disciples of Arishtanemi. Devaki, upon learning this, laments not experiencing her sons' childhood. Krishna, to console her, undertakes a fast and worships a deity, leading to the birth of another brother, Gajasukumala. Gajasukumala, after hearing Arishtanemi's teachings, decides to become a monk, despite his family's pleas. On the day of his initiation, he performs the bhikshu-pratima vow and meditates in the Mahakal crematorium. His future father-in-law, Somila Brahmin, enraged at seeing him as a shaven ascetic, places burning embers on his head. Gajasukumala endures the pain without anger and attains liberation on that very day. Arishtanemi tells Krishna that just as Krishna helped an old man, his brother was helped to escape the cycle of birth and death. The text also recounts Krishna's compassionate act of helping an old man move bricks. These narratives about the swapping of infants, Gajasukumala's life, and his connection with Neminath are unique to Jain tradition.

Comparative Analysis with Hindu Tradition:

Parents and Birth: Both Jain and Hindu traditions agree on Krishna's parents (Vasudeva and Devaki) and his upbringing by Yashoda. Both mention seven other brothers.
Brothers' Fate: While Hindu texts describe Kamsa killing Devaki's first six sons, Jain texts (Vasudevahindi, Uttarpurana, Trisashthishalakapurushacharita) state that these sons were exchanged by the deity Hariṇegameshi with Sulasa's stillborn children. These six brothers are considered Krishna's foster brothers and attain liberation under Neminath.
Balarama's Birth: Jain tradition states Balarama was naturally born to Rohini, unlike the Hindu tradition's account of his transfer to Rohini's womb. The author speculates if the Jain concept of Mahavira's womb transfer might be influenced by Balarama's.
Daughter's Fate: While the Bhagavad Purana describes Kamsa trying to kill Krishna's infant sister (Yogmaya), who then becomes a divine power, Jain texts describe her surviving Kamsa with a cut nose and later becoming a nun. Harivansha (by Jinasena II) connects this to the goddess Kali.
Childhood Deeds: Both traditions share accounts of Krishna's childhood exploits, but Jain texts interpret the demons killed by Krishna and Balarama as defeated and released rather than killed, aligning with their principle of ahimsa. Some texts, like Prashnavyakaraṇa-sutra, do mention their killing.
Mahabharata War: Jain Agamas entirely lack references to the Mahabharata war, although later Jain authors do include it.
Main Rival: Hindu tradition identifies Kamsa as Krishna's primary rival, whereas Jain tradition considers Jarāsandha, a Prativāsudeva, as Krishna's main opponent, whose defeat leads to Krishna's Vasudeva status.
Dwarika's Destruction: Both traditions attribute the destruction of Dwarika and the Yadav dynasty to the Yadavas' indulgence in alcohol. However, Jain tradition uniquely details Krishna's announcement that the state would support the families of those who took initiation under Arishtanemi, leading to the renunciation of his wives and daughters-in-law.
Krishna's Death: Both traditions agree that Krishna died from Jara's arrow. Hindu tradition sees him as eternally liberated, residing in Goloka. Jain tradition posits that he will be reborn as the 12th Tirthankara, Amama, in the next ascending half-cycle, achieving liberation.

Conclusion:

The book emphasizes that while both Jain and Hindu traditions use Krishna's life story as a basis, they have shaped it according to their own doctrines. Many events in Krishna's life, such as his battle with Padmanabha, the story of Gajasukumala, and his relationship with Neminath, are detailed in Jain texts but are either absent or minimally present in Puranic literature, highlighting the unique characteristics of Krishna narratives in Jain tradition.