Prachin Jain Grantho Me Karmsiddhant Ka Vikaskram

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Prachin Jain Grantho me Karmsiddhant ka Vikaskram" by Ashok Kumar Singh:

This book, "The Evolutionary Development of the Theory of Karma in Ancient Jain Texts," by Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh, meticulously traces the historical progression of the complex Jain doctrine of karma as it evolved through early Jain scriptures.

The Importance of Karma in Indian Thought and Jainism: The author begins by highlighting the paramount significance of the concept of karma in Indian philosophy. While most Indian philosophical traditions, with the exception of Charvaka, address karma, Singh emphasizes that Jainism presents a particularly systematic and highly developed framework for this doctrine. He quotes Pandit Dal Sukh Bhai Malavania, who states that the extensive system of karma in Jainism is unparalleled elsewhere. The development of the karma theory, Singh explains, was driven by the search for the causes of the world's diversity. Ancient Upanishads mention time, nature, destiny, chance, and effort as causes. However, these did not fully satisfy thinkers. Early Jain texts like the Sutrakritanga reviewed these concepts, finding them insufficient. This led to the emergence of the karma doctrine within the Shraman tradition, positing that individual differences, experiences of happiness and sorrow, and inclinations towards good or bad actions are caused by an individual's own past karma. This belief was shared by the Nirgrantha (Jain), Buddhist, and Ajivika traditions. Even philosophies like Nyaya-Vaisheshika, while accepting God, prioritized karma (or adrishta) over God as the reason for individual diversity. However, the prominence of karma in Shraman traditions was unique, as theistic traditions tended to place God's authority above karma.

Distinction from Other Shraman Traditions: While the Ajivika tradition has vanished and its literature is lost, making it difficult to ascertain their specific views on karma, the Buddhist tradition attributed the world's diversity to individuals' good and bad karma. However, for Buddhists, karma was primarily a result of the continuity of consciousness, making it purely mental. In contrast, the Nirgrantha (Jain) tradition acknowledged both the mental and physical aspects of karma, developing a comprehensive theory.

Chronological Stages of Jain Karma Theory Development (as outlined by Dr. Rabindranath Mishra): The author adopts Dr. Rabindranath Mishra's categorization of the development of the Jain karma theory into three stages:

1. Initial/Origin Period (6th to 3rd Century BCE): During this phase, the foundational concepts were established:

   • Karma yields auspicious and inauspicious results.
   • Karma accumulates and has the potential to yield results over time.
   • The causes of karma binding are attachment, aversion, passions (kashayas), and delusion (moha).
   • Accumulated karma leads to rebirth.
   • Liberation from this cycle of rebirth (samsara) is achievable through these accumulated karmas. However, at this stage, the doctrine was not presented systematically. There was no discussion of specific karma types (karma prakritis), their relationship with stages of spiritual development (gunasthanas), or their various states like manifestation (udaya) and accelerated manifestation (udîrana).

2. Systematization Period (2nd Century BCE to 3rd Century CE): This era saw the introduction of crucial developments:

   • Classification of primary and secondary karma types.
   • Discussion of distinct causes for the binding of primary and secondary karmas.
   • Elaboration on the five causes of karma binding and their relation to karma classification by type (prakriti bandha), duration (sthiti bandha), intensity (anubhaga bandha), and quantum (pradesha bandha).
   • Mention of the ten states of karma (including udaya, udîrana, etc.).
   • Discussion of the minimum and maximum duration of karma types and their specific consequences.

3. Development Period (4th to 12th Century CE): Key features of this period include:

   • Composition of independent treatises dedicated to the theory of karma.
   • Integration of the karma theory with other Jain philosophical concepts like gunasthanas, jivasthanas, margaṇasthana, and leshya.
   • Detailed analysis of karma manifestation and accelerated manifestation within gunasthanas and margaṇasthanas.
   • Resolution of philosophical problems related to the Jain karma theory.
   • Mathematical formalization of the Jain karma theory.

Analysis of Early Jain Texts:

• Acharaanga Sutra: While the term "karma" generally refers to physical or mental actions, its interpretation in Jainism emphasizes the cause and effect. Karma is seen as having three components: the motivating factor, the action itself, and the result. The Acharaanga acknowledges the physical aspect of karma with concepts like "karma-sharira" (karma body) and "karma-raja" (karma particles), which form the basis of the dravya karma (material karma) concept. It also mentions the concept of bhava karma (mental karma) through the description of underlying mental states. The text clearly accepts the physical aspect of karma and its influx (asrava). The idea that karma is the cause of transmigration (samsara) and bondage is also evident. The Acharaanga links karma to violence (himsa) and undertaking activities (arambha), stating that ignorance of these leads to transmigration. It discusses akarma (non-karma) and the distinction between papakarma (sinful karma) and punyakarma (meritorious karma), indicating an understanding that not all karmas are binding. The concept of karma-sharira suggests that a body is formed by karma particles and can be purified through asceticism. The ideas of samvara (cessation of influx) and nirjara (shedding of karma) for liberation are also present. The text identifies delusion (moha), violence (himsa), and attachment-aversion (raga-dvesha) as causes of karma bondage. Even without raga-dvesha and negligence (pramada), if violence occurs, karma binding takes place, hinting at the concept of iryapathika karma (karma caused by momentary action). However, specific discussions on the five causes of bondage, eight karma types, and ten karma states were absent.

• Sutrakritanga Sutra: Compared to the Acharaanga, the Sutrakritanga shows a more developed understanding of karma. It asserts that individuals cannot be free without experiencing the fruits of their own actions. The text clearly states that individuals reap what they sow and that personal karma is the sole cause of happiness and suffering. It identifies attachment (parigraha) as a primary cause of violence and misconduct. Later, it includes the four passions (kashayas) – greed (lobha), delusion (maya), ego (ahankara), and anger (krodha) – as causes of karma bondage. It also implicitly links non-abstinence from violence, falsehood, theft, and illicit sexual intercourse to karma bondage, laying the groundwork for the five causes of bondage (delusion, non-abstinence, negligence, passions, and yoga). The Sutrakritanga emphasizes that individuals are the sole experiencers of their karma and cannot transfer or receive karmic consequences. While not using the terms dravya karma and bhava karma directly, it mentions "karma-raja" and shedding karma like skin, implying the acceptance of the material aspect. The distinction between pramada (negligence) as karma and apramada (non-negligence) as non-karma also signifies the acceptance of the mental aspect. The text discusses karma as meritorious (punya), sinful (papa), and non-karma (akarma). It mentions darshanavaraniya (vision-obscuring) karma, suggesting the nascent stage of karma type classification. The concepts of iryapathika and samparayika karma (karma associated with different types of actions) are first encountered here, linked to the discussions of akarma and karma. The text mentions the states of udaya, udîrana, and karma-kshaya (destruction of karma), stating that karma destruction is possible through asceticism, leading to ultimate liberation.

• Rishibhashita Sutra: The Rishibhashita demonstrates a more advanced stage of karma theory. It is the first text to discuss auspicious and inauspicious karma and transcending them. It uses the analogy of gold and iron chains to discuss transcending merit and demerit. It's also the first to mention the "eight knots of karma" (ashtakarma granthi) and explicitly lists the five causes or "intakes" of karma. While not detailing the ten states of karma, it describes karma as possessing components, being capable of yielding results, being initiated, and being uninitiated. It also mentions karma that is initiated, enhanced, bound, manifested, and destined, as well as the inevitable experiencing of nikachita karma (inevitably to be experienced karma). The Rishibhashita strongly reiterates that individuals experience the results of their own good and bad karma. The presence of the "eight knots of karma" implies that the discussion of the eight primary karma types was already established. Some scholars consider the Rishibhashita contemporary with the Acharaanga and Sutrakritanga, but its developed karma theory, particularly in the "Parshva" chapter, suggests it might belong to the Parshva lineage, which possibly had a more developed karma doctrine even before Mahavira. The emphasis on mental aspects and karma continuity aligns with Buddhist teachings.

• Uttaradhyayana Sutra: The Uttaradhyayana, apart from its 33rd chapter, largely reiterates concepts found in the Acharaanga and Sutrakritanga. It states that karma follows the doer and that all beings experience the fruits of their karma according to their actions. It links the desire for sensual pleasures to the bondage of karma particles with the soul, and freedom from passions leads to no bondage. Karma is described as meritorious or sinful based on one's intentions and results. Terms like karma-granthi, karma-kunchuka, karma-raja, karma-guru, and karma-vana are mentioned, but they do not present new concepts. The 33rd chapter, however, is considered a significant development in the karma theory, even though its exact dating is debated. It elaborates on the "eight knots of karma" mentioned in the Rishibhashita and is the first scripture to discuss the eight primary karma types (ashtamula prakritis) and their subdivisions. It also likely introduced the classification of karma into ghati (destructive) and aghati (non-destructive) karma. The text lists specific subdivisions for the eight primary karmas, including details on jnanaavarniya (knowledge-obscuring), darshanavaraniya (perception-obscuring), vedaniya (feeling), mohaniya (delusion), aayushya (lifespan), nama (name), gotra (status), and antaraya (obstruction) karma. Notably, the subdivisions for darshanavaraniya differ from today's understanding. The text also discusses the maximum and minimum duration of karma types, with variations in the duration of vedaniya karma. While the Bhagavati Sutra provides extensive details on the soul's reception of karma particles, the Uttaradhyayana briefly mentions it in a single verse.

• Sthananga Sutra: The Sthananga Sutra presents a more developed karma theory compared to the earlier texts. It asserts that the fruits of karma are experienced in this or the next life. It discusses the duration of karma results for deities, hell-dwellers, humans, etc., and their manifestation in the current or other lives. The classification of sub-types of karma varies in the Sthananga. In some sections, the eight primary karmas are classified into two sub-types each (partial/complete, knowledge-obscuring/perception-obscuring, pleasant/unpleasant feeling karma, delusion-knowledge/delusion-conduct karma, lifespan of current life/lifespan of future life, auspicious/inauspicious name karma, high/low status karma, and karma obstructing present enjoyment/karma obstructing future gain). In other sections, it mentions different numbers of sub-types for jnanaavarniya, darshanavaraniya, and vedaniya. The classification of nokashaya vedaniya karma is considered unusual. The absence of mohaniya karma's 28 subdivisions and nama karma's subdivisions (except for the simplified two types) is attributed to the Sthananga's structure of collecting items in tens. However, the absence of antaraya karma's five subdivisions is noteworthy, especially since the Uttaradhyayana's 33rd chapter lists them. This suggests that the Uttaradhyayana's chapter might be later than the Sthananga, and the number of sub-types evolved. The Sthananga describes karma in two types: pradesha (quantum) and anubhava (experience). It also distinguishes between well-performed karma (suchirna) and ill-performed karma (duchirna), which essentially represent meritorious and sinful karma. The text analyzes the auspiciousness and inauspiciousness of karma through four permutations: auspicious-auspicious, auspicious-inauspicious, inauspicious-auspicious, and inauspicious-inauspicious, where the first term refers to the nature of karma and the second to its binding. It also mentions iryapathika and samparayika karma. The Sthananga details the four types of karma bondage: prakriti, sthiti, anubhaga, and pradesha, and two types of bondage: preya (affectionate) and dvesha (hateful). It lists the four passions and negligence separately, and also the five causes of influx together (delusion, non-abstinence, negligence, passions, and yoga), although the Rishibhashita already mentioned these five. A significant contribution is the discussion of the reasons for binding short or long lifespan karma, and the specific times for binding lifespan karma for different types of beings, with a particular mention of the practice of binding lifespan karma in the next life when nine months of the current life remain, which contradicts Digambara beliefs. The text also discusses the continuous bondage of mohaniya karma and its effects like madness, negligence, and the generation of sensual desires. It mentions the states of karma as accumulation, bondage, accelerated manifestation, experiencing, and shedding, with an overall mention of the eight karma types undergoing these processes. The absence of all ten karma states indicates a gradual development.

• Samavayana Sutra: The Samavayana is considered a compilation of existing Jain doctrines. It confirms this by presenting the number of subdivisions of karma types, causes of karma bondage, 30 causes for mohaniya karma bondage, 52 names for mohaniya karma, and the presence and bondage of sub-types of karma for different spiritual beings. It reiterates the two types of bondage (affection and hatred) and the five causes of bondage. The Samavayana specifically names the subdivisions of darshanavaraniya (9) and mohaniya (28) karma, and nama karma (42), noting that the number of nama karma subdivisions continued to grow. It lists 52 names for mohaniya karma, including subdivisions for the four passions. It also specifies the number of mohaniya karma subdivisions remaining for beings at different spiritual levels. While the term gunasthana is not explicitly used, the "fourteen soul-states" are enumerated, which are understood as the fourteen stages of spiritual development. The text mentions the number of karma types bound by beings in different spiritual states, such as those in the subtle passion state binding only seventeen karmas. It also discusses the number of karma subdivisions bound by beings in different evolutionary stages, including those binding 25 subdivisions of nama karma, or 28 karma subdivisions for those binding life-states of gods or hell-dwellers. The Samavayana concludes that the number of subdivisions for most karma types, except for nama karma, had become fixed by this time. It also provides scattered information regarding the bondage and duration of mohaniya karma, citing 30 causes for its bondage, which are also found in other texts and can be interpreted as general causes of karma bondage.

Conclusion: The book systematically demonstrates the progressive evolution of the Jain karma doctrine from its foundational concepts in early texts like the Acharaanga to its detailed classification and analysis in later scriptures like the Sthananga and Samavayana. The study highlights how the theory became increasingly sophisticated, incorporating minute classifications of karma types, their causes, states, and their intricate relationship with the soul's spiritual journey.