Political History Of Northern India

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Political History of Northern India from Jain Sources (c. 650 A.D. to 1300 A.D.)" by Dr. Gulab Chandra Choudhary:

Overall Goal and Approach:

The book's primary aim is to reconstruct and analyze the political history of Northern India between approximately 650 A.D. and 1300 A.D. by exclusively utilizing Jain sources. The author, Dr. Gulab Chandra Choudhary, emphasizes that while much of the political history of this period is known from other literary and epigraphic sources, this specialized work aims to highlight the unique contributions and perspectives offered by Jain literature and inscriptions. The study also pays attention to geographical details, which are crucial for identifying ancient place names and understanding the territorial extent of various dynasties.

Sources Used:

Dr. Choudhary meticulously categorizes and values the Jain sources, dividing them into two main heads:

• Literary Sources:

  • Caritas and Prabandhas: These include mythological (lives of 63 Salākā Puruṣas), biographical (lives of royal patrons), and chronicle-style works. They offer valuable insights into contemporary events, historical figures, and even political concepts. Examples include the Harivansa Purāṇa and works by Hemacandra, Nayacandrasuri, and others. ' * Narrative Literature: This vast body of literature, including kathās, ākhyānas, and caritas, provides insights into popular stories, fairy tales, and narrative poetry, offering a glimpse into the real lives of common people and the broader history of Indian civilization.
  • Literature on Polity: Specific works like Somadeva's Nitivākyāmṛta and Hemacandra's Laghvarhannitiśāstra are crucial for understanding Jain political concepts and administrative ideas.
  • Miscellaneous Literature: This includes works on grammar, poetics, and dramaturgy, which occasionally contain historically significant verses or references to political conditions. The Vividhatirtha-kalpa is highlighted for its accounts of historical events like invasions.
  • Pattavalis: These chronological works record the succession of important figures, including rulers, providing genealogical lists and chronology.
  • Prasastis (Colophons): These are invaluable for their genealogical lists of Jain teachers, references to contemporary rulers, ministers, officials, and patrons, offering reliable chronological data.

• Inscriptional Sources:

  • Jain inscriptions, found on images, rocks, pillars, and copper plates, are considered primary sources due to their imperishable nature and often precise dating. They furnish reliable data regarding chronological sequences, dynastic histories, and the activities of rulers and prominent individuals. The author notes the catholicity of Jain teachers in composing inscriptions found in non-Jain temples, often invoking non-Jain deities or using inclusive invocations.

Key Dynasties and Regions Covered (Political History - Part I):

The book systematically covers the political history of various dynasties across Northern India:

• Madhya Desa:

  • Pusyabhutis: Focuses on Harṣa and his conflict with Pulakesin II, drawing information from the Aihole inscription.
  • Yasovarman and Successors: Discusses Yasovarman, his lineage (debated between Jain sources and others), period, conquests, and his successors like Āma (Nāgāvaloka), Dunduka, and Bhoja, whom Jain sources mention but are absent in other records.
  • Ayudha Family: The author critically examines the existence of this dynasty, suggesting it might be a "concoction" based on name similarities (Vajrayudha, Indrayudha, Cakrayudha) and differing sources.
  • Gurjara-Pratiharas: Traces their origin, settlement in North-West Rajasthan, and discusses the Jodhpur and Avanti branches. Key rulers like Vatsarāja, Nāgabhaṭa II, Bhoja I, Mahipala, and Vinayakapāla (alias Mahīpāla) are analyzed, with attention to dates and key events mentioned in Jain sources.
  • Gāhadavālas: Covers their origin (debated between aboriginal Bharatas and Lunar race), their connection to the Rastrakutas according to Jain sources, and rulers like Candradeva, Govindacandra, Vijayacandra, Jayacandra, and Hariscandra, highlighting their political and diplomatic activities and interactions.

• Eastern India:

  • Palas: Discusses their origin, location (Gauda country), and mentions Dharmapala, Devapala, Rajyapala, and Mahipala I, noting the Jain evidence regarding Dharmapala's enmity with King Ama of Kanauj.
  • Senas of Bengal: Examines their origin from Karnata Kshatriyas, their potential connection to Jain teachers of the same name, and mentions Lakshmaṇasena and his ministers. The book explores the change in religion from Jainism to Saivism within the Sena family.
  • Kesari Dynasty of Kalinga (Orissa): Notes the limited Jain epigraphic evidence for this minor dynasty, focusing on Udyotakesari and the inscriptions found in the Udayagiri-Khandagiri hills.

• Central India:

  • Candellas: Covers their origin, early rulers like Yasovarman I, Dhanga, Ganda, Vidyadhara, Madanavarman, and Viravarmadeva, utilizing Khajuraho and other Jain inscriptions. The book details the Candellas' interactions with Paramaras and Caulukyas.
  • Kacchapaghātas: Discusses the Gwalior and Dubkunda branches, relying heavily on inscriptions like the Sasbahu temple inscription and the Dubkunda inscription. It analyzes the genealogies, rulers like Lakshmana, Vajradāman, Mangalarāja, Kirtiraja, Muladeva, Devapala, Padmapala, Mahipala, Arjuna, Abhimanyu, Vijayapala, and Vikramasimha.
  • Kalacuris of Dahala: Traces their history from early references in the Aihole inscription, mentioning Gangeyadeva, Lakshmikarna, and Gayakarna, and their interactions with rulers like Bhoja of Dhara and Bhima I.
  • Paramaras: A significant portion details the history of the Paramaras, their hold over Malava, their origin myths (fire-pit), and their interactions with other dynasties. It covers rulers like Siyaka, Vakapati Muñja, Sindhuraja, Bhoja I (with extensive details on his accession, conquests, scholarship, and death), Jayasimha and Udayaditya, Jagadeva, Naravarman, Yasovarman, Vindhyavarman, Subhatavarman, Arjunavarman, Devapala, Jaitugideva, Jayavarman II, and Bhoja II. The book analyzes their political and cultural contributions.

• Rajasthan:

  • Cahamānas: Discusses their origin (Solar race, Vatsa gotra), original seat (Sakambhari), and various branches: Sakambhari, Ranathambhor, Naddula, Jāvālipura (Jalor), and Lāta. It details rulers like Cahamāna, Vasudeva, Samanta, Vigraharaja II, Durlabharaja, Prithviraja I, Ajayadeva, Arnoraja, Vigraharaja IV, Prthviraja II, Hariraja, Govindarāja, Balhana, Prahlada, Viranarayan, Vagbhața, Jaitrasimha, Hammiradeva, Sindhurāja, Samarasimha, Udayasimha, Cācigadeva, Kanhadadeva.
  • Guhilaputras or Guhilotas: Covers the Guhilas of Mewar and Naduladagika, mentioning rulers like Guhadatta, Bhartipatta II, Allata, Saktikumāra, Samantasimha, Kumārasimha, Mathanasimha, Padmasimha, Jaitrasimha, Tejasimha, and Samarasimha, highlighting their political status and interactions with other powers.
  • Rastrakutas of Hastikundi: Based on the Bijapur stone inscription of Dhavala, it traces their genealogy from Harivarman to Bālaprasāda, noting their role in aiding other rulers.
  • Paramaras of Banswara (Vāgada): Analyzes inscriptions from Arthūņa, discussing rulers like Mandalika, Cāmundarāja, and Vijayaraja, and their interactions with Paramaras of Malava and Caulukyas.
  • Paramaras of Candravati and Arbuda: Details the history of this branch, including rulers like Dhūmarāja, Kṛṣṇarāja, Dharanivaraha, Mahipala, Dhandhuka, Pūrņapāla, Krsnarāja II, Vikramasimha, Yasodhavala, Dhārāvarṣa, Prahladana, and Somasimha, emphasizing their feudatory status and building activities.
  • Paramaras of Kiradu: Based on a damaged inscription, it mentions Sindhuraja, Usala/Disala, Dharanidhara, Devaraja, Durlabharaja, Dhandhuka, Kṛṣṇarāja, Socaraja, Udayaraja, and Someśvara, noting their vassalage and territorial disputes.

• Saurashtra:

  • Cāvada of Anahilapur: Discusses their early account, parentage debates, foundation of Anahilapura, and genealogical challenges, mentioning Vanaraja, Yogaraja, Ratnaditya, Vairisimha, Kṣemarāja, Cāmunda, Ghāghada, and Bhūyada/Bhūbhata/Samantasimha, and their eventual overthrow by Mularaja.
  • Caulukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat: A substantial section is dedicated to this influential dynasty, covering Mularaja's ancestors, origin myths, the original seat, and rulers from Mularaja I, Cāmunda, Vallabharāja, Durlabharaja, Bhima I, Jayasimha Siddharaja (with extensive details on his accession, early reign, achievements, four great things, ministers, and court), Kumārapala (his parentage, early days, accession, reign period, conquests, ministers, generals, court, religion, and reforms), Ajayapala (his reign period, conquests, and death), and Mularaja II. The Jain sources provide rich details about the political and cultural life during this period.
  • Vaghela Branch of the Caulukyas: Details their early history starting from Dhavala, covering Arnorāja, Lavaṇaprasāda, Vīradhavala, and their influential ministers Vastupala and Tejahpāla. It explores their rise to power, military achievements, and their significant contributions to Jainism. It also discusses the succession disputes after Vīradhavala, mentioning Vīsala, Vīrama, and Arjunadeva. The narrative continues with Sārangadeva, Karņadeva, and the end of the Vaghela dynasty.

Polity and Administration (Part II):

This section delves into the governmental structures and concepts prevalent during the period, as gleaned from Jain sources:

• General Condition: Characterized by feudalism, despotism, and a degree of political stagnation, but also a broad underlying unity in administrative structure.
• Origin and Conception of the State: Jain authors like Jinasena trace the origin of the state from a natural evolution of societal needs after the decline of a blissful state, emphasizing human agency and the absence of divine creation. This contrasts with Brahmanical and Buddhist views.
• Seven Constituents of State: The traditional saptāngas (king, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, army, allies) are discussed as being fundamental to all states, whether sovereign or feudal.
• Form of Government: Strictly monarchical, with no mention of republican forms.
• The King: Portrayed as the central figure, the pivot of all activities, possessing divine prestige and absolute power, yet advised to be religious, just, and to seek counsel. His personal safety was paramount.
• Education and Discipline of the King: Emphasis is placed on acquiring knowledge in four branches (Anviksiki, Trayi, Varta, Dandaniti) and personal discipline. The importance of selecting qualified princes as successors is highlighted.
• Succession: Mostly hereditary within the family, but not strictly adhering to primogeniture. The influence of ministers and court parties in succession is noted, as well as queens acting as regents.
• Titles of Kings and Queens: Kings held high-sounding titles like Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Paramesvara, and Samastarājāvali-samalankṛta, indicating divine prestige. Queens were typically styled as 'devi' or 'rajni'.
• Royal Personal Officers: Various officers managed the palace, entrance, interviews, personal security, treasury, bed-chamber, gardens, and correspondence.
• Functions of the King: Encompassing executive (policy-making, revenue collection, punishment, reforms), military (army inspection, leading campaigns, appointing chiefs), and judicial (supreme court of appeal) roles.
• Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad): Essential for administrative efficiency, providing advice, and balancing royal power. The composition varied, with a focus on learned, loyal, and virtuous individuals.
• Organization of Central Government: Headed by the king, with a prime minister (mahamatya) overseeing the secretariat (śrikarana). Other ministers and officers managed various departments.
• Provincial Administration: Provinces (mandala) were governed by mahamandalesvaras or governors, often appointed from the royal family or trusted feudatories.
• Feudatories (Samantas): An integral part of the state structure, holding territorial lordships, maintaining armies, and owing allegiance to the suzerain. Their titles and positions varied, and they played a significant role in military campaigns.
• District Administration: Provinces were divided into districts (vishaya), headed by visayapatis, with further subdivisions like ahāras and pathakas. Various officers assisted in revenue collection and maintaining order.
• Local Government: Evidence of municipal bodies (mahajana-sabha) managing town affairs, markets, and religious grants, and village administration overseen by village headmen (graminaka, mahattara) or executive committees (pancakula).
• Revenue and Finance: Emphasis on agriculture, cattle-breeding, and trade as sources. Taxation, while varied, was crucial for state expenditure. The nature of taxes levied for temple maintenance is detailed. Various coins like dramma, rūpaka, vimsopaka, etc., are mentioned. Unclaimed property, tributes, and fines also contributed to state income.
• Expenditure: Included salaries for officials, military maintenance, public works, and religious/benevolent activities.
• Accounts Department: Managed by specific officers responsible for orderly financial records and audits.
• Law and Justice: The king was the supreme judicial authority. Courts (sabha, pancakula) operated with judges (sabharapati, karanika) and juries (sabhyas). Importance of documentary evidence, oaths, and ordeals is discussed. Punishments varied based on the offense and social status, with exemptions for certain groups like Brahmins, women, and ascetics in some traditions.
• Military Administration: Armies comprised infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The book notes the disappearance of chariots. The six-fold division of the army (maula, bhrta, śrei, suhrd-balam, dvişad-balam, aṭavi-balam) is discussed. The importance of fortifications, diplomacy, and war ethics is highlighted. Various war officers and weapons are mentioned.

Conclusion:

The book, "Political History of Northern India from Jain Sources," is a significant contribution to understanding the political landscape of medieval India from a unique Jain perspective. By meticulously analyzing a wide array of Jain literary and epigraphic sources, Dr. Choudhary sheds light on the dynastic histories, administrative structures, and political concepts of the era, supplementing and sometimes correcting existing historical narratives. The work underscores the Jain community's engagement with and contribution to the political and cultural life of ancient and medieval India.