Philosophies Of India - Book Summary

This comprehensive summary, based on Heinrich Zimmer's "Philosophies of India," edited by Joseph Campbell, delves into the multifaceted landscape of Indian thought, with a particular focus on Jainism, Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta, and Buddhism. Zimmer, through Joseph Campbell's meticulous editing of his posthumous work, presents Indian philosophies not merely as abstract doctrines but as profound ways of life, deeply intertwined with the individual's journey toward transformation and liberation.

I. The Meeting of East and West & Foundations of Indian Philosophy:

Zimmer begins by highlighting the existential crossroads faced by the West, mirroring India's ancient philosophical awakening around the 7th century BCE. He emphasizes that while Eastern wisdom offers profound insights, its solutions are unique to its cultural context and cannot be directly borrowed. The core of Indian philosophy, he argues, is transformation rather than mere information, aiming for a radical change in human nature. This involves discovering the Self (Atman), an eternal, unchanging entity underlying the transient personality and physical body. This discovery, often achieved through disciplines like yoga, is what imbues Indian civilization with a unique sense of calm amidst its tumultuous history.

He contrasts the Western philosophical tradition's engagement with science and reason with the Indian emphasis on philosophy as a way of life. This necessitates a dedicated qualified pupil (adhikarin), who approaches the teachings with faith (shraddha) and desire for release (mumukshutva), often through years of apprenticeship to a guru. This relationship, rooted in reverence and obedience, aims for an "alchemical transmutation of the soul."

Key Indian Terms and Concepts Introduced Early:

Atman: The Self, the eternal, imperishable core of being.
Brahman: The Holy Power, the ultimate reality, the substratum of all existence.
Māyā: Illusion, the phenomenal character of the world and the mind, obscuring the true Self.
Dharma: Duty, religious and moral obligations, the cosmic order.
Artha: Material possessions, wealth, economics, politics.
Kāma: Pleasure, desire, love, sensuality.
Moksha: Release, spiritual liberation, emancipation from the cycle of rebirth.
Adhikārin: The qualified pupil, possessing the necessary spiritual qualifications.
Guru: The spiritual teacher.
Yoga: A discipline of introverted concentration and self-mastery.
Sannyāsa: Complete renunciation of the world.
Vidya: Knowledge or wisdom, leading to specific powers or attainments.
Karma: Actions and their consequences, shaping future existences.

II. The Philosophies of Time (Worldly Aims):

Zimmer explores the Indian classification of life's goals into the Trivarga:

Artha: The pursuit of material well-being, economics, and politics, characterized by the Arthaśāstra and the Matsya-nyāya ("law of the fishes")—a pragmatic, often ruthless, philosophy of survival and power politics. This section highlights the historical parallels with Western political thought, from Machiavelli to contemporary totalitarian states, emphasizing the Indian understanding of political strategy driven by self-interest and temporary alliances.
Kāma: The pursuit of pleasure and love, personified by the god Kāma. This encompasses desire, sensuality, and the arts of love, as codified in the Kāmasūtra. While often misunderstood as mere sensuality, it is presented as a fundamental aspect of the universe's creative impulse, originating from Kāma-loka, the realm of desires. The text acknowledges the Buddhist concept of Māra, the personification of desire and death, as an antagonist to spiritual liberation.
Dharma: The realm of religious and moral duties, social order, and caste obligations. This section emphasizes the highly stratified and prescriptive nature of Indian society, where each individual's role is divinely ordained and meticulously followed to maintain cosmic harmony. Satya (Truth) and Satyagraha (holding to truth), as exemplified by the story of Bindumati and the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, are presented as powerful forces capable of transforming reality, even challenging established power structures through non-violent resistance. The concept of ahimsā (non-violence) is highlighted as a foundational principle, particularly within Jainism and Buddhism.

III. The Philosophies of Eternity (Spiritual Aims):

Jainism: Zimmer positions Jainism as a fundamental, archaic, and pessimistic dualistic system rooted in pre-Aryan traditions. It emphasizes the jiva (life-monad) and ajiva (lifeless matter), and the concept of karma as subtle matter that clings to the jiva, creating bondage. The Jaina path to release ( moksha or kaivalya) involves strict asceticism, non-violence (ahimsa), and the purification of the jiva through austerities ( tapas), aiming to shed all karmic matter and achieve kaivalya—a state of absolute isolation, omniscience, and bliss. The text notes the striking parallels between Jaina and Buddhist iconography and mythology, particularly the role of serpents and the confrontation with tempters. The images of the Tirthankaras (Makers of the Crossing) embody this ideal of detachment, often depicted in rigid, immobile postures, representing a stark contrast to the dynamic dynamism of Vedic deities.
Sankhya and Yoga: Presented as complementary systems, Sānkhya provides the theoretical framework of dualism between puruşa (life-monad) and prakṛti (matter), while Yoga offers the practical techniques for disentanglement. The puruşa is described as an eternal, inactive, luminous spectator, wrongly identified with the transformations of prakṛti due to ignorance (avidyā). Yoga aims to still the citta-vritti (spontaneous activities of the mind) through various disciplines, leading to kaivalya, the realization of the puruşa's inherent, unchanging freedom. The text details the five kleshas (hindrances)—ignorance, egoity, attachment, aversion, and will to live—as the root causes of suffering, which are to be overcome through rigorous practice and discriminating knowledge (viveka). The analysis of buddhi, ahaṁkara, and manas as the "inner organ" (antahkaraṇa) highlights the intricate psychology of the Sānkhya system.
Brāhmanism: Zimmer traces the evolution of orthodox Brahmanical thought from the early Vedas, with their pantheon of personalized cosmic forces and elaborate sacrifices, to the more philosophical and introspective Upaniṣads. The Vedic period saw the anthropomorphization of nature's forces, with deities like Agni (fire) and Indra (king of gods) playing central roles. The Upanishads, however, shifted the focus inward, discovering the Ātman (Self) as the ultimate reality, identical with Brahman. Through parables like the fig seed and the dissolved salt, they illustrate the concept of the transcendent, immanent, and nondual nature of the Self. The Bhagavad Gītā is presented as a pivotal text that harmonizes the earlier Vedic world-affirmative dynamism with the introspective, world-renouncing idealism of the non-Aryan traditions, advocating Karma Yoga (selfless action) and Bhakti Yoga (devotion) as paths to liberation. Vedānta, particularly the Advaita (Nondualist) school of Sankara, further refines this, positing Brahman as the sole reality, with the phenomenal world and the individual ego (ahaṁkara) being mere illusions (māyā) arising from ignorance (avidyā). The goal is the realization of the identity "That art thou" (Tat tvam asi), leading to kaivalya, the absorption of the individual consciousness into the unqualified, blissful essence of Brahman.

IV. Buddhism:

Zimmer introduces Buddhism as a radical departure from Vedic traditions, a "therapy" rather than a mythology, offering a "middle path" between indulgence and extreme asceticism. The Four Noble Truths form the core of its doctrine: the universality of suffering, the cause being craving born of ignorance, the possibility of cessation, and the Noble Eightfold Path as the means to achieve it. Buddhism emphasizes mindfulness and psychological control rather than adherence to physical rituals or theories of subtle karmic matter. The Buddha, the "Awakened One," represents the ideal of a being who has transcended all worldly illusions and passions, a "Crossing-Maker" whose teachings provide a path to Nirvana (cessation). The text notes the shared themes with Jainism, such as the temptation by Māra (Buddhism) or Samvara (Jainism), and the protection by serpent-kings, reflecting common cultural and artistic antecedents.

V. Tantra:

While the provided text only briefly mentions Tantra in the table of contents and the editor's foreword, it is identified as a highly sophisticated psychological application of the Aryan-Dravidian synthesis, profoundly influencing both Buddhist and Brahmanical traditions, and continuing to shape religious life in India and East Asia.

Overall Themes and Zimmer's Perspective:

Throughout the text, Zimmer consistently highlights:

The primacy of experience over theory: Indian philosophy is presented as a lived path, demanding transformation and practical discipline.
The concept of the Self (Ātman/Brahman/Puruṣa): A core focus across many Indian traditions, understood as the ultimate reality, the inner core of being, often obscured by ignorance and illusion.
The cyclical nature of existence: The concept of samsara (the round of rebirths) and the goal of moksha (liberation) from it are central.
The importance of the guru-disciple relationship: Essential for transmitting esoteric knowledge and guiding the transformative process.
The philosophical use of paradox and metaphor: Indian thinkers employed vivid imagery and seemingly contradictory statements to convey truths beyond the grasp of rational intellect.
The integration of diverse traditions: Zimmer emphasizes how Aryan and non-Aryan elements coalesced to form the rich tapestry of Indian philosophy.

Zimmer's work is characterized by its deep appreciation for the symbolic language of Indian thought, its meticulous historical and comparative analysis, and its ability to convey the profound existential implications of these ancient philosophies. The summary reveals a continuous thread of seeking ultimate reality, whether through asceticism, knowledge, devotion, or psychological discipline, all aimed at transcending the limitations of individual personality and the transient world.