Pashu Pakshi Srushti Don Vibhinna Drushtikon - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Pashu Pakshi Srushti Don Vibhinna Drushtikon" by Anita Bothra, in English:

This research paper, presented at the 27th Maharashtra Philosophy Conference in Malad (Mumbai) from November 11-13, 2010, explores the distinct perspectives on the animal and bird kingdom from the viewpoints of Jain philosophy and the Charaka Samhita. The study aims to highlight the fundamental differences in how these two traditions perceive and categorize the animal world, particularly in relation to human beings and their own philosophical frameworks.

1. Jain Perspective on the Tiryak Gati (Sub-human Realm): Scope and Position of Animals and Birds

Jain philosophy categorizes sentient beings into four realms: Naraka (hellish beings), Tiryak (sub-human realm), Manushya (human realm), and Deva (celestial beings). The Tiryak gati is distinct from the others, encompassing beings from one-sensed (ekendriya) to five-sensed (panchendriya).

Tiryak Classification:
- Ekendriya: Earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied, and plant-bodied beings.
- Dwi-indriya: Two-sensed beings (e.g., worms, leeches).
- Tri-indriya: Three-sensed beings (e.g., ants, lice).
- Chatur-indriya: Four-sensed beings (e.g., flies, mosquitoes, bees).
- Panch-indriya: Five-sensed beings (e.g., horses, cows, deer, lions, frogs, fish, peacocks, parrots, dogs, cats).
Further Divisions of Five-Sensed Tiryak:
- Sanjni (Conscious): Possessing a mind.
- Asanjni (Unconscious): Lacking a mind. Jain philosophy believes that beings born from a womb (garbhaj) possess a mind. These can be further classified as viviparous (jarayuj), oviparous (andaj), or born from a placenta (potaj).
- Locomotion: Water-dwellers, land-dwellers, air-dwellers, crawling beings (uragaparisarpa), and those that move by slithering (bhujagaparisarpa).
- Hooves: One-hoofed, two-hoofed, footed (gandipada), and those with clawed feet (sanakapada).
- Birds: Feathered birds (charmapakshi), hairy birds (romapakshi), birds that fly (samudvapakshi), and those with spread wings (vitatapakshi).
In-depth Analysis: Jain scriptures like the Shatkhandagama, Dhavala Teeka, Gommatasar (Jeevakaanda), Pannavana, and Jivabhigama analyze five-sensed Tiryak beings through 14 marganasthanas (modes of existence), including realm, senses, body, activity, feeling, passions, knowledge, restraint, perception, luminescence, right faith, potentiality, consciousness, and sustenance. Other aspects like language, body type, cognition, and outward manifestation are also considered.
Affinity and Perception: The detailed analysis demonstrates Jainism's deep affinity and awareness regarding the animal kingdom. Jainism views the animal and bird world as the closest to the human world, believing they possess some degree of knowledge (mati, shruta) and even some psychic abilities (avadhi, manahparyaya). Some animals can also experience recollective memory (jatismarana).
Qualities and Potential: Jain texts acknowledge both negative traits (anger, deceit, attachment to food) and positive qualities (love, affection, communal feeling, non-possession, detachment, controlled behavior) in animals. The concept of four types of intellect (autpattiki, vainayiki, karmja, and parinamiki) is also discussed, with observations suggesting animals exhibit these to varying degrees.
Linguistic Classification: Jain philosophy's theoretical consideration of animal sounds as a form of language is considered a unique achievement.
Beyond Instinct: Jainism's recognition of knowledge, emotions, and thought processes in animals, rather than attributing their behavior solely to instinct, aligns closely with modern naturalistic observations.
Spiritual Potential: Due to their general adherence to natural limitations, Jain texts also suggest the possibility of spiritual progress for animals.

2. Tiryak Discourse in Charaka Samhita, Especially the Animal and Bird Kingdom

The Charaka Samhita, a foundational text of Ayurveda, is generally considered contemporaneous with the Sushruta Samhita, both dating back to around 500 BCE to 200 CE.

Ayurvedic Context: The Charaka Samhita begins with "Athato Dirghajivitiyam Adhyayam Vyakhsyamaah" (Now we shall expound the chapter on long life), indicating its focus on health and longevity. It is considered an Upanishad of the Atharvaveda and draws upon Vaishēṣika and Sāṅkhya philosophical backgrounds.
Absence of "Tiryak" Terminology: The term "tiryak" is not explicitly used extensively in the Charaka Samhita's main Sutras, though it appears once in the commentary. The concept of "tiryak" has more extensive treatment in Sāṅkhya philosophy.
Vedic and Sāṅkhya Views on Tiryak: Most ancient Vedic texts mention only three realms: Deva, Manushya, and Tiryak, with the Naraka realm being less frequently mentioned. The Mahabharata's Sāṅkhya discourse distinguishes animals, birds, and insects from other "tiryak" beings, implying "tiryak" primarily refers to the animal kingdom. Sāṅkhyakārikā commentaries include animals, birds, deer, reptiles, and stationary beings (plants) within the Tiryak category. Some texts list five lower realms: quadrupedal, flying, serpentine, oblique (tiryak), and stationary. While Vedic descriptions clearly include animals and birds in the Tiryak gati, there's inconsistency regarding insects, small creatures, and plants.
Charaka Samhita's Classification of Animals and Birds: Prioritizing therapeutic applications, Charaka Samhita divides animals into eight categories based on their habits and feeding:
1. Prasaha: Those that seize and tear their prey (e.g., cows, donkeys, horses, tigers).
2. Bileshaya: Those that live in burrows (e.g., snakes, mongooses, frogs).
3. Aanupa: Those inhabiting marshy regions (e.g., elephants, buffaloes).
4. Varishaya: Water-dwellers (e.g., fish, turtles, crocodiles).
5. Jalchara: Those that move in water (e.g., swans, ducks, storks).
6. Jangala: Those inhabiting arid regions (e.g., deer, sambar, peacocks).
7. Vishkira: Those that scratch the ground with their feet to eat (e.g., partridges, roosters, crows).
8. Pratuda: Those that peck with their beaks (e.g., sparrows, parrots, woodpeckers).
Therapeutic Applications: The Charaka Samhita frequently uses this classification for medicinal purposes, suggesting the consumption of meat from different categories during specific seasons or for treating particular ailments. For example, it recommends eating meat from water-dwellers in winter and from Jangala animals in rainy seasons. It also advises against consuming meat from domestic or aquatic animals for individuals suffering from conditions like leprosy or diabetes.
Contrast with Jain Classification: The paper notes that Charaka Samhita does not employ the multi-faceted classification and analysis of the animal kingdom found in Jain philosophy, which considers factors like pain, passions, emotions, mind, and knowledge. Such a comprehensive approach would have imposed significant limitations on the therapeutic use of animals.

3. Utility of Animals and Birds in Charaka Samhita for Longevity and Disease Treatment

The Charaka Samhita utilizes various animal products as medicinal substances, categorized into:

Jangama (Movable/Animal-derived): This category includes honey, dairy products, bile, fat, marrow, blood, meat, excreta, urine, skin, semen, tendons, horns, nails, hooves, hair, wool, and gorochana. These Jangama substances are derived from animals that, according to Jain philosophy, are five-sensed conscious beings (samanaska panchendriya trasajeeva).
Audbhida (Plant-derived): Various types of plants.
Parthiva (Earth-derived): Minerals like gold, silver, iron, lime, ochre, and salts. Jain philosophy considers these mineral substances to be earth-bodied, one-sensed, stationary beings (prithvikayika ekendriya sthavara).
Panchakarma and Animal Products: Specific Panchakarma (five therapeutic procedures) treatments like Nasya (nasal administration), Vamana (emesis), Virechana (purgation), Asthapana Basti (non-unctuous enema), and Anuvāsana Basti (unctuous enema) extensively use animal meat, meat broth, and various animal hides.
Other Medicinal Uses: The text also discusses the use of juices from quails, partridges, peacocks, swans, pigs, cocks, cats, sheep, and fish mixed with ghee. Animal blood from rabbits, deer, quails, partridges, and peacocks is also mentioned for medicinal purposes. Fresh blood from these animals is suggested for treating severe bleeding.
Discussion on Meat Consumption: Charaka Samhita discusses the suitability and unsuitability of meat, its quality, and nutritional value. It states that meat, when free from defects, is beneficial, nutritious, and strength-enhancing, and regular consumption contributes to health and strength.
Meat-centric Approach: The paper highlights that during the time of Charaka Samhita, meat-based therapies were highly prioritized in dietetics and disease treatment.

4. Changing Meaning of Ahimsa (Non-violence) Due to the Use of Animals in Medicine

The paper examines how the Charaka Samhita views the principle of Ahimsa in the context of using animals for food and medicine.

Ahimsa as Supreme: The text acknowledges Ahimsa ("non-killing of life") as the most excellent means for longevity, leading to merit and increased lifespan.
Reinterpreting Ahimsa: However, the Charaka Samhita does not interpret Ahimsa as absolute non-killing. The text suggests that violence committed for the sake of health and longevity, as prescribed by Ayurveda, is not considered violence in the true sense because its ultimate aim is dharma (righteousness). Furthermore, consuming meat without excessive craving does not incur the sin of violence.
Vedic and Sāṅkhya Influence: The author posits that the perspective on animals in the Vedic tradition and Sāṅkhya thought, which often characterizes the Tiryak gati as tamasic, ignorant, and full of suffering, provides a backdrop that makes the therapeutic use of animals acceptable.
Human Superiority and Animal Subordination: Both Vedic and Jain traditions emphasize human superiority and the rarity of human life. However, while Jainism recognizes the consciousness, intelligence, emotions, mind, and spiritual potential of animals, the Vedic tradition, including Charaka Samhita, viewed animals as secondary beings and did not find it objectionable to use them for human well-being.

5. Therapeutic Perspective in Jain Ascetic Conduct: Causes and Evolution

The paper outlines three stages of therapeutic approaches within Jainism:

First Stage (Early Texts): Early scriptures like the Acharanga Sutra, Uttaradhyayana Sutra, and Dashavaikalika Sutra exhibit a strong prohibition against therapeutic practices involving harm to any living beings.
- Acharanga Sutra: It describes the suffering experienced by one-sensed beings when harmed and details how individuals kill animals for their skin, flesh, blood, organs, feathers, horns, teeth, nails, and bones, drawing parallels with the Jangama substances used in Charaka Samhita. It also states that a physician performing surgery, dissection, or killing for treatment is not beneficial for a detached ascetic who does not engage in such practices. The text outright prohibits practices like purgation, emesis, bathing, anointing, and teeth cleaning.
- Dashavaikalika Sutra: It also completely prohibits Panchakarma and other therapies. It suggests that forbidden plants for ascetics should not be used for medicinal purposes either.
- Uttaradhyayana Sutra: Chapters 15, 19, and 20 condemn therapies involving animals, Panchakarma, and the use of mantras and roots by physicians. It suggests that ascetics should emulate the natural, non-interventional healing of animals like deer. Ascetics are encouraged to maintain equanimity in the face of illness, recognizing it as a result of past karma, and not seek or endorse medical treatment.
Second Stage (Later texts like Vipaka Sutra): Texts like Vipaka Sutra, considered to be from the later stage of Ardhamagadhi literature, reflect the increasing prevalence of therapeutic practices mentioned in Charaka Samhita. It mentions physicians and the god Dhanvantari, and while it describes Jangama, Parthiva, and Audbhida substances and the eight branches of Ayurveda, it ultimately prohibits all forms of treatment and Panchakarma due to their karmic consequences (vipaka).
Third Stage (Commentaries on Kalpa, Nishitha, Vyavahara Sutras): Commentaries from the 6th-7th centuries CE on these Sutras show a significant shift. While retaining the principle of using pure and desirable (prasuka, eshaniya) medicines, the absolute prohibition of treatment is fundamentally altered.
- Vyavahara Bhashya: It states that physicians provide relief for ailments arising from the impurities of the body. The commentary mentions three types of therapies.
- Extensive Medical References: The Vyavahara Bhashya and its commentaries extensively discuss medicinal practices, drugs, and health. They mention topics like the effects of adverse food, massage, rest, the purpose of emesis and purgation, treating injuries, using Brahmi for intellect, managing digestive issues, common colds and coughs, urinary tract infections, wound treatment, dental care, precautions against infectious diseases, treating poisoning, and dietary advice.
- Adaptation to Societal Norms: Despite the ideal of ascetic conduct prohibiting all therapies, Jain tradition, as evidenced by these commentaries, could not remain entirely detached from the prevalent and beneficial medical practices. While accepting medical intervention for maintaining the body as a tool for dharma, they emphasized using pure and desirable medicines without causing harm to life.
Digambara Perspective: The Digambara tradition shows less emphasis on prohibiting medical treatment, with only occasional mentions within the context of faults related to acquisition and consumption. Ancient texts like the Bhagavati Aradhana (3rd-4th century) even mention ascetics undergoing emesis, purgation, and enemas during Sallekhana (fasting unto death).

Conclusion

The paper concludes by reflecting on the evolution of therapeutic practices in relation to the animal kingdom within both Ayurveda and Jainism.

Ayurvedic Shift: While the Charaka Samhita emphasized Jangama substances, current Ayurvedic practice primarily uses Audbhida and Parthiva substances. Interviews with Ayurvedic practitioners reveal a near-complete cessation of using meat, animal parts, and flesh for medicinal purposes and Panchakarma.
Influences on the Shift: This change is attributed to the combined influence of various Indian thought systems, particularly the emphasis on Ahimsa, compassion, and mercy in Jain and Buddhist ideologies. As Ayurvedic practitioners embraced ethical principles like compassion and empathy, therapies based on harming animals became increasingly objectionable. While meat consumption continued in the general diet of many Indian societies, its use in medicine was largely phased out.
Jain Adaptation: The Jain tradition, while accepting prasuka-eshaniya therapies over time, retained its philosophical foundation regarding the Tiryak.
Prioritizing Human Effort: The Jain tradition, by prioritizing human effort (purushartha) over the strength of karmic predispositions (vedaniya, ayushyakarma), evolved towards prasuka-eshaniya therapeutic methods. Similarly, Ayurvedic practitioners, while initially prioritizing Jangama therapy, adapted to ethical considerations, maintaining the core principle of Ahimsa.
Shift from Anthropocentrism: The paper highlights that Ayurveda moved from a human-centric view in the Charaka Samhita to a broader perspective of "benevolent to all creatures." The Jain tradition, with its strong foundation in "benevolence to all creatures," moved away from an absolute prohibition of treatment to prioritize health maintenance, while always emphasizing pure and desirable means.
Cultural Synthesis: The author concludes that Indian culture is continuously woven through the exchange and interaction of diverse philosophical traditions.