Outlines Of Jainism

"Outlines of Jainism" by Jagmandarlal Jaini, edited by F.W. Thomas, published in 1916 by Cambridge University Press, is a comprehensive introduction to the Jaina religion and philosophy. The book aims to provide a clear and authoritative exposition of Jainism for a Western and Indian audience.

The work is structured into several key sections:

Preliminary Note by F.W. Thomas: This note highlights the historical context of Jainism studies in Europe, acknowledging earlier scholars and the importance of Professor Jacobi's contributions. It also mentions existing English literature on Jainism and emphasizes the value of this volume, particularly its inclusion of Jaina texts. Thomas notes that the author, while not intending propaganda, is an adherent of the faith, bringing a practical appreciation to the subject.

Preface by Jagmandarlal Jaini: Jaini expresses the purpose of the book as an effort to provide a small, reliable introduction to Jainism in response to inquiries from both Europeans and Indians. He acknowledges the challenges Jainism faced in gaining recognition due to the unfamiliarity of its followers with Western study methods and their religious reservations about sharing sacred texts. Jaini credits several scholars for establishing the credibility of Jaina traditions and expresses his gratitude to his friends and patrons, including His Highness Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar of Indore, for their support. He concludes by stating his hope that the book will lead readers to understand the message and inspiration of Jainism.

Bibliographical Note: This section lists key works on Jainism, including French and German publications, as well as English introductions and translations. It also lists the Indian texts cited within the book.

Introduction and History:

• Basis of Philosophy: Jainism, like all philosophy, addresses the relationship between humanity and the universe, and the best way to live. It presents the answers offered by Pārsva-nātha and Mahāvīra.
• Structure of the Outlines: The book is divided into two main parts: Religion (Theology, Metaphysics, Ethics, Ritual) and Secular Knowledge (touched upon in Appendices).
• Definition of Religion: Religion is defined as a set of beliefs and answers to fundamental questions about oneself, the universe, and one's destiny and duty.
• Theological Aspects: Theology deals with humanity's idea of God and its relation to Him, defining God as the highest ideal, attained through spiritual progress.
• Metaphysical Aspects: Metaphysics explores the relationship between the "self" and the "non-self" (the universe), dividing the universe into two eternal categories: the soul (jīva) and the non-soul (ajīva). Non-soul includes matter, time, space, and principles of motion and stationariness. Karma is identified as the link between soul and non-soul.
• Ethical Aspects: Jaina ethics emphasizes the unity of individual and societal good. It is characterized by rigor and detailed rules of conduct, including the vows and stages of a layman's life. Ahimsā (non-hurting) is the foundational principle, encompassing active service.
• Ritual Aspects: Jaina ritual is described as devotional and ecstatic, centered around the perfect soul as the ultimate ideal.
• Jaina History and Chronology: The text discusses the concept of cosmic cycles (kalpas), eras (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī), and ages. It places Lord Mahāvīra in the 6th century BC and Pārsva-nātha as an earlier Tirthankara. It also touches upon the historicity of Mahāvīra and Pārsva-nātha, drawing evidence from Buddhist scriptures and Jaina traditions, and discusses the lineage of Tirthankaras. It explains the historical development of Jaina sacred literature and the division into Svetāmbaras and Digambaras.
• Core Doctrines: Jainism's foundational principles are highlighted: the dualistic nature of personality (material and spiritual), the soul's capacity for divinity through faith, knowledge, and conduct, and the central ethical principle of ahimsā.

Chapter I - Theology:

• Fundamental Principles:
  1. Dual Personality: Man has a material and a spiritual aspect, contrasting with the Hindu concept of Brahman.
  2. Perfectibility of the Soul: The human soul is not perfect but can advance towards perfection, characterized by infinite perception, knowledge, power, and bliss.
  3. Spiritual Control: The spiritual nature must control the material nature to achieve perfection and happiness.
  4. Responsibility: Man is solely responsible for his actions and their consequences, without divine intervention.
• Jina and Tirthankara: A "Jina" or "Tirthankara" is a soul that has achieved perfection.
• Five Supreme Ones (Pañcha-Parameshthin): These include Siddhas (liberated souls), Arhats (omniscient beings with a body), Acharyas (heads of ascetics), Upadhyāyas (teaching saints), and Sadhus (ascetics).
• Theology and God: Jainism does not believe in a creator God, viewing creation as implying imperfection. Instead, it emphasizes raising humanity to Godhood through spiritual development.
• Sixty-three Great Persons: The text mentions a category of 63 spiritually significant individuals in Jaina hagiology, including Tirthankaras, Chakravartins, Nārāyaṇas, Prati-nārāyaṇas, and Bala-bhadras.
• Tirthankara Table: A table provides details about the 24 Tirthankaras, including their parents, birthplace, lifespan, emblems, and other characteristics.

Chapter II - Metaphysics:

• Jīvājīva (Soul and Non-Soul): The universe is divided into two fundamental categories: the conscious soul (jīva) and the non-conscious non-soul (ajīva).
• Kinds and Qualities of Soul: Souls are classified as sthāvara (immobile) and trasa (mobile), with further subdivisions based on the number of senses. The soul is described as immaterial, eternal, and possessing consciousness, knowledge, perception, bliss, and power.
• Substance and Attributes (Dravya): Dravya is the fundamental reality, possessing attributes and undergoing modifications. Substances are eternal and indestructible, though their conditions change.
• Six Substances (Dravyas): These are Soul (jīva), Matter (pudgala), Time (kāla), Space (ākāśa), Principle of Motion (dharma), and Principle of Stationariness (adharma).
• Five Astikāyas (Magnitudes): These are the five substances that have spatial units (pradeśas) – Soul, Matter, Space, Dharma, and Adharma. Time is excluded as it has only one pradeśa.
• Karma: Karma is the subtle matter that binds the soul, causing its mundane existence. It is classified into eight types (four destructive: jñānāvaraṇīya, darśanāvaraṇīya, vedanīya, mohanīya; and four non-destructive: āyuh, nāma, gotra, antarāya). The text details the 148 prakritis (subdivisions) of karma.
• Seven Principles (Tattvas): These are Jiva (soul), Ajiva (non-soul), Āsrava (inflow of karma), Bandha (bondage), Samvara (stopping of inflow), Nirjarā (falling off of karma), and Moksha (liberation).
• Nine Padārthas: These are the seven tattvas plus punya (merit) and pāpa (demerit).
• Five Bodies: The soul is associated with five bodies: karmic, magnetic, physical (audārika), angelic (vaikriyika), and āhāraka (a special body of saints).
• Forms of Existence (Gatis): Souls exist in four states: celestial (deva), hellish (nāraka), human (mānushya), and sub-human (tiryag).
• Leśyās (Tints of the Soul): These six colors (black, blue, grey, red, lotus-pink, white) represent the psychical condition of the soul due to karma and passions.
• Stages in the Evolution of the Soul (Guṇa-sthānas): Fourteen stages describe the soul's journey from impurity to liberation, influenced by the rise and fall of karmic matter.
• The Three Jewels (Trivarga): These are Right Conviction (samyak-darśana), Right Knowledge (samyak-jñāna), and Right Conduct (samyak-charitra), which together lead to Moksha.

Chapter III - Ethics:

• Aim of Jaina Ethics: To facilitate the attainment of Moksha for all individuals within society.
• Ascetic vs. Layman Rules: Ascetic rules are stricter, offering a shorter but harder path to liberation.
• Layman's Stages (Pratimās): The eleven stages of a layman's life are detailed, starting with faith and progressing through vows, worship, fasting, and renunciation.
• Ahimsa as the Core Principle: The principle of non-injury (ahimsā) is paramount, influencing food, drink, trades, social behavior, and even civil and criminal matters.
• Practicality of Jainism: The book notes the low crime rate among Jainas and their commercial success, suggesting the religion's practical efficacy.

Chapter IV - Jaina Ritual:

• Purpose of Ritual: To manifest love and reverence for the ideal, leading to unity with it.
• Four Aspects of Worship: Ritual involves venerating the name, status (through representations), substance (potential future attainment), and actual nature of the ideal.
• Ideal Worship: Jainas worship the ideal perfect soul, not specific individuals, making their practice catholic.
• Faith, Philosophy, Ethics, and Ritual: The text outlines the progression from faith to ritual as the culmination of religious practice.

Appendices:

• Appendix I: Jaina Logic: Discusses Jaina epistemology (pramāņas), its categories (nayas), and the doctrine of manifold predicability (Syād-vāda), emphasizing the anekānta (many-sided) view of reality. It also outlines the Jaina syllogism.
• Appendix II: Cosmogony, Cosmology, Astronomy: Describes the infinite and eternal nature of the universe, its structure (loka and aloka), the arrangement of heavens, hells, continents, and mountains, and the Jaina astronomical system with its concepts of dual suns and moons.
• Appendix III: Sixty-three Great Persons: Lists the important figures in Jaina hagiology, including Tirthankaras, Chakravartins, Nārāyaṇas, Prati-nārāyaṇas, and Bala-bhadras.
• Appendix IV: 143 Qualities of Saintly Souls: Details the attributes, powers, and perfections of Tirthankaras, Siddhas, Acharyas, Upadhyāyas, and Sadhus, including their tapas (austerities), virtues, and daily duties.
• Appendix V: Ancient Jaina Sacred Literature: Provides an extensive account of the Jaina scriptures, including the twelve Angas and fourteen Pūrvas, and other texts like Prakirṇakas and Chūlikās, often with detailed numerical figures of "padas" (verses or sections). It also discusses the canonical divisions recognized by both Digambara and Svetambara traditions.

In essence, "Outlines of Jainism" serves as a foundational text, systematically presenting the core tenets, philosophical framework, ethical guidelines, and historical context of Jainism. It aims to make this ancient Indian tradition accessible and understandable to a broad audience, highlighting its emphasis on individual responsibility, spiritual evolution, and non-violence.