Outlines Of Jainism - Book Summary

This document is a comprehensive summary of "Outlines of Jainism" by S. Gopalan, published by Wiley Eastern Private Limited in 1973. The book is structured into five parts: Introduction, Epistemology, Psychology, Metaphysics, and Ethics, followed by a Bibliography and Index.

Part I: Introduction

Is Jainism an Offshoot of Buddhism?: The book argues against the notion that Jainism originated as an offshoot of Buddhism. It highlights historical and philosophical differences, citing scholarly research that supports Jainism's independent and earlier origins. Resemblances cited by some scholars (e.g., opposition to caste, atheism, emphasis on ahimsa) are explained as stemming from a common Indian intellectual milieu rather than direct borrowing.
Jainism Before Mahavira: It establishes that Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, was a reformer, not the founder, of Jainism. The text points to historical evidence and Jaina tradition supporting the existence of Jainism and its Tirthankaras before Mahavira, notably Parsva (the 23rd Tirthankara).
Parsva and Mahavira: This section discusses the historicity of both Parsva and Mahavira. It notes that while dates are debated, Mahavira likely modified some teachings of Parsva, particularly the emphasis on vows (e.g., adding celibacy). The core teachings, however, remained largely the same.
Svetambaras and Digambaras: The book outlines the origins and key differences between the two major sects of Jainism. It attributes the split to factors like famine, leadership differences, and differing interpretations of ascetic rules (especially regarding clothing). Major points of divergence include idol depiction, biographical accounts of Mahavira, scriptural acceptance, and the role of women in the monastic order.
Jaina Source-books: It details the Jaina canon, discussing the Purvas (considered oldest but lost), the twelve Angas (like Acārānga, Sūtrakṛtānga, Bhagavati), Upāngas, Prakīrņas, Cheda-Sūtras, and Mūla-Sūtras. The challenge of dating these texts and differing scholarly opinions on their redaction are noted.
Is Jainism Atheistic?: The book clarifies that Jainism is not atheistic in the common sense. It rejects the concept of a creator God (Isvara) but venerates Tirthankaras and other liberated souls (Jinas). It argues that the world is eternal and self-governing, not created or sustained by a divine being, and critiques the arguments for God's existence.

Part II: Epistemology

Jaina Epistemology: An Over-view: This chapter introduces Jaina epistemology, focusing on the concept of pramāņas (means of valid knowledge). It discusses the five types of knowledge: mati (sense and mind-based), śruta (scriptural/verbal), avadhi (clairvoyance), manaḥparyāya (telepathy), and kevala (omniscience). It highlights the Jaina distinction between immediate (pratyakşa) and mediate (parokşa) knowledge.
Darsana and Jnana: It explains the two fundamental stages of knowledge acquisition: darśana (indeterminate awareness) and jñāna (determinate knowledge). This distinction is compared to sensation and perception, respectively, emphasizing the Jaina view of knowledge as a progressive process.
Mati-jnana: This chapter elaborates on mati-jñāna, knowledge derived from the senses and mind. It details the four stages within mati-jñāna: avagraha (initial apprehension), īha (speculation), apāya (perceptual judgment), and dhāraṇa (retention).
Śruta-jnana: It discusses śruta-jñāna, or scriptural/verbal knowledge, emphasizing its importance and derivation through reliable testimony. It contrasts śruta with mati, noting that śruta is considered superior due to its broader scope (past, present, future) and authoritative nature.
Kevala-Jnana: This chapter focuses on kevala-jñāna, or omniscience, described as perfect, complete, and all-comprehensive knowledge. It is achieved through the total annihilation of karmic obstructions and represents the highest stage of spiritual evolution.
Inference: It analyzes the Jaina theory of inference (anumāna), differentiating between subjective (svārthānumāna) and syllogistic (parārthānumāna) inference. It highlights the Jaina acceptance of syllogistic forms, including the five-membered and ten-membered syllogisms.

Part III: Psychology

Mind: The book explains the Jaina view of the mind (manas), which is considered a "non-sense" or "quasi-sense" (anīndriya) rather than a direct sense organ. It discusses the mind's subtle material nature and its role in mediating knowledge, distinguishing it from the self (jīva).
Sensation and Perception: This chapter clarifies the distinction between darśana (apprehension/sensation) and jñāna (comprehension/perception) within Jaina psychology, detailing the stages and types of sensation and perception.
Emotions and Feelings: It explores the Jaina understanding of emotions and feelings, linking them to karmic influences (kaṣāya and mohaṇīya karma). It highlights the subjective nature of pleasure and pain and the psycho-ethical character of Jaina emotion theory, emphasizing mind-control for personality integration.
Extra Sensory Perception: This section discusses avadhi (clairvoyance) and manaḥparyāya (telepathy) as forms of extra-sensory perception, achievable through the removal of karmic obstructions. It details the varying capacities and types of these abilities.
Self: The Jaina concept of the self (jīva) is presented as a real, eternal, conscious, and non-material substance. It contrasts with the Buddhist anātman doctrine and emphasizes the self's essential nature as consciousness, capable of direct perception.
Metempsychosis: It explains the Jaina doctrine of reincarnation, emphasizing the immortality of the soul and the possibility of both progress and retrogression across different states of existence (hellish, animal, human, celestial). This doctrine underpins the Jaina ethics of responsibility.

Part IV: Metaphysics

Reality and Existence: This chapter posits that in Jainism, Reality is equated with Existence. It outlines the Jaina realism which considers all categories (dravyas)—Soul (Jiva), Matter (Pudgala), Motion (Dharma), Rest (Adharma), Space (Akasa), and Time (Kala)—as real and eternal.
Ontology: It analyzes the Jaina ontology, which accepts both identity and difference as crucial to understanding Reality. It contrasts this with the extreme positions of Advaita (pure identity) and Buddhism (pure difference) and other Indian schools, highlighting Jainism's "qualified non-dualism" and realistic approach.
Jiva: This chapter focuses on the jiva (soul) as the conscious principle, real, eternal, and existing in infinite numbers. It describes the four states of existence (hellish, animal, human, celestial) and the concept of karmic bondage that affects the jiva.
Ajiva: It details the non-conscious categories: pudgala (matter), dharma (principle of motion), adharma (principle of rest), ākāśa (space), and kāla (time). It emphasizes the substantial reality of matter and its atomic composition.
Nayavada: This chapter explains nayavada, the doctrine of viewpoints, which posits that reality can be understood from multiple perspectives. It discusses the seven nayas (Naigama, Sangraha, Vyavahara, Rjusutra, Sabda, Samabhirudha, Evambhuta) as ways of analyzing reality without negating other perspectives.
Syadvada: It delves into syadvada, the doctrine of "may be," which asserts that no single proposition can fully capture reality. This doctrine, supported by nayavada, uses seven predications to acknowledge the complex and manifold nature of reality.

Part V: Ethics

The Ethical Code: This section outlines the five cardinal vows (mahāvratas) of Jainism: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacarya (celibacy), and aparigraha (non-possession). It explains their application for both ascetics (mahāvratas) and lay followers (aṇuvratas), emphasizing the importance of intention and the primacy of ahimsa.
Doctrine of Karma: It explains the Jaina theory of karma, defining it as subtle matter that adheres to the soul, influencing its experiences and cycle of rebirth. It details the eight main types of karma and their numerous sub-species, highlighting the materialistic interpretation of karma and individual responsibility.
The Ethical Categories: This chapter details nine ethical categories: jiva, ajiva, punya (virtue), papa (vice), asrava (influx of karma), bandha (bondage), samvara (prevention of influx), nirjara (shedding of karma), and moksa (liberation). It shows the interconnectedness of metaphysical and ethical principles.
The Six-fold Monastic Order: It describes the institutional framework of Jainism, outlining the six stages of spiritual evolution: muni (monk), ācārya (teacher), upādhyāya (preceptor), sādhu (saint), arahanta (liberated soul, perfected), and siddha (fully liberated, transcendent).
Doctrine of Gunasthana: This chapter details the fourteen stages (guṇasthānas) of spiritual progress, representing the soul's journey from spiritual blindness to omniscience and liberation.
The Anuvrata Movement: It discusses the contemporary Anuvrata movement, initiated by Acarya Tulasi, as a practical application of Jaina ethics (particularly non-violence and non-possession) to modern societal issues. It emphasizes individual character development and self-purification as the basis for social reform.

The book concludes with a bibliography of referenced works and an index of key terms and concepts. Overall, "Outlines of Jainism" offers a scholarly yet accessible introduction to Jaina philosophy, covering its historical context, epistemological framework, psychological insights, metaphysical principles, and ethical guidelines.