Outlines Of Jaina Philosophy

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Overview:

"Outlines of Jaina Philosophy" by Mohanlal Mehta, published in 1957, aims to provide a lucid and accessible introduction to the fundamental principles of Jaina philosophy, covering its ontology, epistemology, and ethics. The book is structured into six chapters, delving into the Jaina conception of reality, the nature of the soul, the concept of matter, the theory of knowledge, the relativity of judgment, and the doctrine of karma. The Jain Mission Society, Bangalore, published it with the objective of propagating "Right Knowledge."

Key Philosophical Concepts:

1. Conception of Reality (Chapter 1):

   • The chapter begins by contextualizing Jaina philosophy within the broader landscape of Western idealism and realism, defining both concepts and exploring various types of idealism (Platonic, Berkeleyan, Kantian, Hegelian, etc.) and realism (Monistic, Dualistic, Pluralistic, Pragmatic, Neo-Realism, Critical Realism, etc.).
   • Jainism is presented as a realist philosophy that affirms the independent existence of reality, including matter. It critiques idealism for underestimating the material universe and realism for not grasping its completeness.
   • Jainism's unique contribution is its pluralistic realism, positing six fundamental substances (dravyas):
     • Jivāstikāya: The conscious, extensive, and immaterial substance (Soul).
     • Pudgalāstikāya: The unconscious, extensive, and material substance (Matter).
     • Dharmāstikāya: The unconscious, extensive, immaterial substance that aids motion.
     • Adharmāstikāya: The unconscious, extensive, immaterial substance that aids rest.
     • Ākāśāstikāya: The unconscious, extensive, immaterial substance that provides space.
     • Addhāsamaya (Kāla): The non-extensive, unconscious, immaterial substance (Time).
   • The text emphasizes that while pudgala is material, the other non-soul substances (ajiva) are immaterial.
   • Jainism asserts that reality is characterized by origination, decay, and permanence (utpādavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat). This highlights the doctrine that all things are simultaneously permanent in their essence and changing in their modes (paryāyas).
   • Jainism advocates for the relativity of judgment (Syādvāda) and non-absolutism (Anekānta) as central tenets, asserting that reality possesses infinite aspects, and any judgment is true only from a particular viewpoint.

2. Nature of Soul (Chapter 2):

   • The chapter argues for the independent existence of the soul (jiva), refuting materialistic views that deny it. Arguments are presented based on self-awareness (ahampratyaya), the existence of doubt (implying a doubter), and the inseparable connection between qualities and the soul.
   • Consciousness (cetanā) is identified as the essential nature of the soul, contrasting with the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika view that consciousness is an accidental quality.
   • The soul is described as a changing entity (pariņāmin), an agent (kartā), an enjoyer (bhoktā), and equal in extent to its body (deha-parimāņa). This latter point is a unique Jaina doctrine.
   • Souls are infinite in number and are classified into worldly (saṁsārin) and liberated (mukta). Worldly souls are further divided into moving (trasa) and non-moving (sthāvara) based on the number of senses they possess.
   • The concept of upayoga (consciousness/experience) is central, manifesting as jñāna (knowledge) and darśana (intuition). The relationship and potential simultaneity or succession of jñāna and darśana in both imperfect and perfect (omniscient) souls are discussed.
   • The soul is also described as the possessor of material karma, a subtle, imperceptible substance that adheres to and influences the soul.

3. Conception of Matter (Chapter 3):

   • Matter (pudgala) is affirmed as a real and independent substance, possessing characteristics like touch, taste, smell, and color.
   • The term pudgala is etymologically explained as that which combines and dissociates.
   • Matter is composed of indivisible elementary particles called anus (atoms) and their combinations called skandhas (molecules). Atoms have one taste, one color, one smell, and two kinds of touch (smoothness and roughness).
   • The chapter differentiates Jaina views from those of the Vaiseṣikas regarding the nature of elements like air and fire, arguing for a more unified material substance.
   • The concept of five kinds of bodies (sharīras) formed by matter is explained: audārika (gross physical), vairiya (transformable), āhāraka (subtle, projectable), taijasa (electric), and kārmana (subtle, karmic).
   • Various manifestations of matter, including sound, union, fineness/grossness, figure, divisibility, darkness, shade, heat, and light, are discussed.

4. Theory of Knowledge (Chapter 4):

   • Jaina epistemology emphasizes that knowledge (jñāna) is the essence of the soul. Knowledge is primarily divided into five categories: Mati (sensory/intellectual), Śruta (scriptural), Avadhi (clairvoyance), Manahparyāya (telepathy), and Kevala (omniscience).
   • These categories are also classified into direct (pratyakṣa) and indirect (parokṣa) knowledge. Avadhi, Manahparyāya, and Kevala are considered direct, while Mati and Śruta are typically indirect, though Mati is sometimes considered practically direct.
   • The chapter details the means of valid cognition (pramāņa), generally accepted as perception and inference, but Jainism also includes authority (āgama), recollection (smyti), and recognition.
   • Direct perception (pāramārthika pratyakṣa) is described as the perfect manifestation of the soul's innate nature, achieved through the annihilation of karmic obscurations, leading to omniscience.
   • Empirical perception (laukika pratyakṣa) is conditioned by the senses and mind and is further analyzed into sensation (avagraha), speculation (ihā), determinate perception (avāya), and retention (dhāraṇā).
   • Clairvoyance (avadhi-jñāna) and telepathy (manahparyāya-jñāna) are discussed as super-sensory perceptions, distinct from omniscience.
   • Arguments for the existence of omniscience (kevala-jñāna) are presented, refuting common objections about its possibility and nature.

5. Relativity of Judgment (Chapter 5):

   • This chapter elaborates on the core Jaina doctrines of Anekānta (multi-sidedness of reality) and Syādvāda (the doctrine of relativity of judgment).
   • It reiterates that reality is characterized by origination, decay, and permanence, rejecting absolute permanence and absolute momentariness.
   • Syādvāda states that every judgment is conditional and relative, expressed through the word "syāt" (perhaps, from a certain viewpoint).
   • The seven-fold judgment (saptabhaṅgī) is explained as a method to express the multiple aspects of reality: exists, does not exist, exists and does not exist, is indescribable, exists and is indescribable, does not exist and is indescribable, and exists, does not exist, and is indescribable – all from particular viewpoints.
   • Nayas (viewpoints or partial standpoints) are introduced as the tools for making judgments. There are seven types of nayas, broadly categorized into Dravyāstika (dealing with generality) and Paryāyāstika (dealing with particularity), with further subdivisions like Naigama, Saṅgraha, Vyavahāra, Rjusūtra, Śabda, Samabhīrūḍha, and Evambhūta.
   • The chapter warns against fallacies of nayas (nayābhāsas) that arise when a particular viewpoint is taken as absolute.

6. Doctrine of Karma (Chapter 6):

   • This chapter details the Jaina understanding of karma, not merely as action, but as subtle, imperceptible material particles that adhere to the soul and obscure its innate qualities.
   • Karma is described as operating under the universal law of cause and effect, explaining individual characteristics and life experiences.
   • Bondage (bandha) occurs when karmic matter enters the soul, influenced by activities of body, mind, and speech, and strengthened by passions (kaṣāyas: anger, pride, deceit, greed).
   • Karma is classified based on four aspects: nature (prakṛti), duration (sthiti), intensity (anubhāga), and quantity (pradeśa).
   • The eight fundamental species (mūla prakṛti) of karma are detailed: knowledge-obscuring (jñānāvaraṇa), intuition-obscuring (darśanāvaraṇa), feeling-producing (vedanīya), belief and conduct-obscuring (mohaṇīya), age-determining (āyus), personality-determining (nāman), status-determining (gotra), and power-hindering (antarāya). Each species has numerous sub-species.
   • The chapter explains the causes for the binding of each karma type and the processes for prevention (saṁvara) and destruction (nirjarā) of karma through austerities and ethical conduct.
   • The fourteen stages of spiritual development (guṇasthānas) are outlined, tracing the soul's gradual progress from a state of ignorance and bondage to liberation, marked by the diminishing influence of karmas and the increasing manifestation of the soul's pure nature (infinite knowledge, etc.).
   • The concepts of Upaśama Śreṇi (suppression of passions) and Kṣapaka Śreṇi (annihilation of passions) leading to ultimate liberation are described.

Overall Aim:

Mehta's book serves as a foundational text for understanding the core tenets of Jaina philosophy, presenting a coherent and systematic exposition of its metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical framework, with a particular emphasis on the doctrines of karma and non-absolutism.