Outlines Of Indian Philosophy

Here's a comprehensive summary of Paul Deussen's "Outlines of Indian Philosophy," based on the provided text, focusing on its structure and key arguments:

Overall Purpose:

Paul Deussen's "Outlines of Indian Philosophy" aims to provide a systematic overview of the development of Indian philosophical thought, tracing its evolution from the earliest Vedic hymns to the post-Vedic systems. He emphasizes the importance of studying Indian philosophy as a crucial parallel to Western thought, offering unique perspectives and highlighting areas of agreement and divergence that can shed light on universal philosophical truths.

Structure:

The book is structured into three main historical periods of Indian philosophy:

1. First Period: Philosophy of the Rigveda: This section delves into the earliest philosophical ideas embedded within the hymns of the Rigveda.
2. Second Period: Philosophy of the Upanishads: This section focuses on the Upanishads, which Deussen considers the culmination of Vedic thought and the foundation for subsequent Indian philosophy.
3. Third Period: Post-Vedic Philosophy: This section surveys the philosophical landscape that emerged after the Vedic period, including the development of orthodox and heterodox systems like Buddhism, Jainism, Sânkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaiceshikam, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.

Key Arguments and Themes:

• Importance of Indian Philosophy: Deussen argues strongly against the notion that Indian philosophy is irrelevant to Western thought. He posits that understanding Indian philosophy is vital for a comprehensive grasp of philosophical truth. When Indian and Western philosophies agree, it strengthens the presumption of correctness; when they differ, it opens critical questions about where truth might lie. Indian philosophy developed independently, offering a valuable counterpoint to the interconnected development of Western thought.

• Three Periods of Indian Philosophy: Deussen links the historical development of Indian philosophy to geographical and cultural shifts:

  • Rigveda Period (Indus Valley): Characterized by early Aryan polytheism, personifications of natural forces, and the nascent stages of philosophical inquiry in later hymns.
  • Upanishad Period (Ganges Plain): Marked by the rise of Brahmanical order, philosophical speculation, and the development of core concepts like Brahman and Atman.
  • Post-Vedic Period (Deccan and further spread): Witnessed the emergence of major religious and philosophical schools, often in reaction to or as development from Vedic ideas, including the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.

• Philosophy of the Rigveda:

  • Religion as Early Philosophy: Deussen views the Rigvedic religion as the earliest form of philosophy, seeing gods as personifications of natural forces.
  • Moral Element vs. Mythological Element: He suggests that the value of a religion lies in the preponderance of its moral element over the mythological. Rigvedic religion, while high in interest, shows a "moral deficiency" with gods often depicted with egotistic tendencies.
  • Decay and Early Philosophical Seeds: Signs of the Rigvedic creed's decline are evident in hymns questioning the gods' efficacy and expressing self-interest. This paved the way for philosophical thought.
  • Unity of the World (Monism): The most significant philosophical development in the Rigveda is the conception of the unity of the universe, expressed in hymns like X. 129, which explores the origin of existence from a primordial, undefined state. This is contrasted with Semitic and Egyptian paths to monotheism, highlighting the Indian philosophical approach of "seeing through the veil of the manifold the unity which underlies it."
  • The Concepts of Prajapati, Brahman, and Atman: Deussen traces the evolution of these key terms:
    • Prajapati: Initially a creator deity, a philosophical abstraction that rose to prominence in the Brahmanas.
    • Brahman: Evolving from "prayer" in the Rigveda to the ultimate creative principle of the world, seen as a power that strengthens the gods.
    • Atman: The "Self," considered the essence of one's own being and the essence of the entire world, representing a more refined philosophical concept than Brahman.

• Philosophy of the Upanishads:

  • Vedanta (End of the Veda): The Upanishads, often the concluding parts of the Vedas, represent a transition from ritual to knowledge, superseding earlier ritualistic practices.
  • Fundamental Equation: Brahman = Atman: The central tenet is the identity of Brahman (the universal principle) and Atman (the individual Self). This idea is presented as having profound implications for understanding reality, suggesting that true insight comes from within.
  • Chronology and Key Upanishads: Deussen discusses the relative ages of the Upanishads, highlighting the Brihadâranyaka and Chândogya Upanishads as containing the oldest texts, particularly those associated with Yâjñavalkya.
  • Primitive Idealism: The earliest Upanishadic thought, exemplified by Yâjñavalkya, is characterized by a bold idealism, asserting that only the Atman is real and nothing exists beyond it.
  • Pantheism and Cosmogonism: The idealism evolves into pantheism (the world is real and is the Atman) and then cosmogonism (the Atman creates the world by willing it into existence and entering into it as the individual soul).
  • Theism: A later development distinguishes between the highest soul (Paramatman) and individual souls (Jivatman), with the latter being dependent on the former.
  • Atheism (Sankhya-like Tendencies): A move towards atheism appears as the highest Atman becomes superfluous, with the focus shifting to primordial matter (Prakriti) and individual souls (Purusha).
  • Vedic Eschatology: Deussen traces the development of ideas about the afterlife, from early hopes of a happy existence for the good and disappearance for the wicked, to the concept of Yama, and eventually to the doctrine of samsara (metempsychosis).
  • Liberation by Knowledge: The ultimate goal is liberation (moksha), which is achieved not through means but as the state of knowing "Aham Brahma asmi" (I am Brahman). This knowledge eradicates fear and all works.

• Third Period: Post-Vedic Philosophy:

  • Six Orthodox Systems: Deussen lists the six orthodox systems (Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaiceshikam, Mimamsa, Vedanta) and notes that most are more practical handbooks of ritual, logic, or focused practices rather than purely metaphysical systems.
  • Sankhya and Vedanta as Metaphysically Significant: Sankhya and Vedanta are highlighted as the most important metaphysical systems, with their roots in the Upanishads.
  • Philosophy of the Epic Period: The Mahābhārata (especially the Bhagavad Gita) is identified as a crucial source for understanding the philosophical transitions, bridging the Vedic and later systems. It discusses concepts like prakriti and purusha, and the dependence on Brahman.
  • Buddhism: Deussen sees Buddhism's core ideas (suffering, thirst for existence, ignorance) as a continuation of Upanishadic thought. He notes its denial of the soul but argues that its theory of transmigration mediated by karma implies an individual bearer, which is the Atman. He critiques Buddhism and Sankhya for focusing on pain as the starting point, suggesting philosophy's true root is the thirst for knowledge.
  • The Later Sankhya System: Deussen argues that Sankhya is a "degeneration" of Vedanta, driven by realistic tendencies. It starts with the dualism of Prakriti and Purusha, stemming from the Upanishadic distinction between the highest and individual souls.
  • The System of the Vedanta (Bādarāyana and Sankara): Deussen likens Sankara's work to the Reformation, where he rejected later accretions and returned to the "pure word of the Upanishads." He addresses the contradictions within the Upanishads by positing two systems:
    • Esoteric (Paravidya): The philosophical truth for the select few, recognizing Brahman/Atman as unknowable and attainable through anubhava (absorption).
    • Exoteric (Aparavidya): The theological system for the masses, including concepts of a personal God (Ishvara), cyclical creation, and samsara.
  • Cosmology, Psychology, Eschatology: Deussen details how Sankara applies this esoteric/exoteric distinction to these areas, explaining the world as maya (illusion) in the esoteric view, and as a cyclical creation driven by karma and samsara in the exoteric view. He aligns the esoteric Vedanta with Kantian philosophy, where space, time, and causality are seen as subjective forms of intellect, and the world as appearance rather than the thing-in-itself. The ultimate liberation is the realization "Aham Brahma asmi."
  • Morality: Deussen argues that the highest morality is a consequence of Vedanta, particularly the concept of "Tat tvam asi" (Thou art That), which emphasizes the oneness of all beings and fosters non-injury and disinterested action.

In essence, Deussen's "Outlines of Indian Philosophy" provides a historical and comparative analysis of Indian philosophical thought, emphasizing the profound philosophical insights contained within the Vedic literature, particularly the Upanishads. He highlights the development of key concepts like Brahman and Atman, the debate between idealism and realism, and the intricate theories of causality, transmigration, and liberation, while also drawing compelling parallels to Western philosophical traditions.