On Indian Sect Of Jainas

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "On Indian Sect of Jainas" by Jas Burgess, based on the content of the provided pages:

Overall Purpose and Context:

This document is a translation of Dr. J.G. Bühler's essay on the Indian sect of Jainas, edited by J. Burgess. The preface highlights the value of Bühler's work for understanding the Srâvaka sect and aims to make this information accessible to educated Indians and Europeans who may not have access to the original German text. Burgess also adds a fuller account of the Tirthankaras and general Jaina mythology for archaeological and iconographic interest.

Core Tenets and Structure of Jainism:

• Divergence from Brahmanism and Similarity to Buddhism: Jainism is presented as a religious society in modern India that is at variance with Brahmanism. It shares several peculiarities with Buddhism, particularly its founding period and its claim to universality.
• Universality and Inclusivity: Jainism, like Buddhism, aims to lead all people to salvation, regardless of caste or origin (including the despised Mlechcha).
• Dichotomy of Ascetics and Laity: The religion, like Buddhism, is divided into ecclesiastics (ascetics, known as Nirgranthas or Yatis/Sadhus) and laity (Upasakas or Sravakas).
• The Three Jewels: The path to salvation (Nirvana or Moksha) involves the "three Jewels":
  1. Right Faith: Complete surrender to the Jina (the prophet) and firm conviction that he alone has found the way to salvation.
  2. Right Knowledge: The correct comprehension of the nine truths or philosophical system taught by the Jina.
  3. Right Walk: Adherence to ethical principles and ascetic practices.
• The Jina: The Jina is an enlightened human being who, through their own power, attained omniscience and freedom from the cycle of birth and death. They are revered as conquerors of the world and inner enemies, and out of compassion, preach the path to salvation. Epithets for the Jina include "Jina" (Victor), "Mahavira" (Great Hero), "Sarvajña" (Omniscient), "Buddha" (Enlightened), "Mukta" (Delivered), "Siddha" (Perfected), "Arhat" (Holy One), and "Tirthakara" (Finder of the Ford). The Jinas are often compared to Buddhas in their character and teachings.
• Cosmology and Philosophy:
  • The world is uncreated, everlasting, and exists without a ruler, governed by its elements.
  • The fundamental elements are souls, Dharma (moral merit), Adharma (sin), space, time, and matter.
  • Souls are independent, real existences, inherently pure intelligence, but are bound to bodies due to passions, false beliefs, and activity.
  • Karma: Deeds (Karman) of merit and sin determine the soul's rebirth. Virtue leads to heavenly realms or noble human births, while sin leads to lower realms, including even inanimate matter.
  • Bondage and Deliverance: The bondage of souls is broken by suppressing causes of confinement, destroying past Karma through asceticism, and attaining omniscience (Kevala Jnana) and Nirvana.
  • Syadvada: Jainism employs "Syadvada" or the doctrine of "It may be so," a mode of reasoning allowing for assertion and denial of the same thing.
  • Philosophical Affinities: Jainism shares atheism (uncreated world) with Buddhism and Sankhya. Its psychology is similar to Sankhya in believing in innumerable independent souls. The doctrine of soul activity and distribution into matter aligns with Vedanta. The concepts of space and time as real substances are found in Vaisheshika. However, Dharma and Adharma as substances are unique to Jainism.

Jaina Ethics and Asceticism:

• The Five Great Vows: The core of Jaina ethics for ascetics are the five great vows: not to hurt, not to speak untruth, not to steal, to preserve chastity, and to practice self-sacrifice. These are often elaborated with specific clauses related to thoughts, words, and deeds.
• Emphasis on Ahimsa (Non-violence): The vow not to hurt is paramount, extending to intentional harm of living beings, plants, and even souls in inanimate matter. It requires extreme carefulness in all actions and thoughts.
• Self-Sacrifice (Tyaga/Aparigraha): This encompasses renouncing possessions, worldly attachments, and developing indifference to external impressions.
• Asceticism (Tapas): This is crucial for attaining Nirvana and involves both inward (self-discipline, repentance, confession, humility, study, meditation) and outward (temperance, begging, self-mortification, fasts) practices.
• Voluntary Death (Sallekhana): The Digambaras consider voluntary death by starvation necessary for ascetics who have reached the highest knowledge. The Svetambaras do not demand it but see it as a sure path to Nirvana.
• Special Rules for Ascetics: These include homelessness, begging, wandering, carrying essential items like a straining cloth and broom to avoid harming insects, abstaining from cleansing and washing, and resting during the rainy season with strict fasts and meditation. The painful plucking of hair is also a unique Jaina custom.
• Laity's Vows: The laity take modified versions of the five vows, avoiding only serious injury, gross untruths, flagrant theft, and practicing conjugal fidelity and contentment. Seven additional vows further guide their outward life, focusing on protecting creatures and spiritual development.
• Lay Influence on Religion: The integration of the laity led to the development of a cult, with Jinas and their predecessors becoming objects of worship. This resulted in the construction of temples and statues, and festivals celebrating their entry into Nirvana. This influence also impacted Jaina art, contributing to beautiful architectural monuments.
• Clergy Adaptation: The admission of the laity influenced the clergy, leading to a shift from wandering ascetics to settled monks dedicated to teaching, missionary work, and scholarship. This fostered the creation of monasteries (Upasrayas), akin to Buddhist Sangharamas.

Historical Context and Evidence:

• Origins and Relationship with Buddhism: Jainism and Buddhism originated around the same time (6th-5th centuries BC) in Eastern India, as a reaction against Brahmanism. While some scholars initially viewed Jainism as a branch of Buddhism, the text argues for their independent development from a shared religious movement.
• Historical Figures and Events: The text details the life of Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, and his contemporary, Buddha. It notes the shared geographical locations of their activities and the appearance of similar personalities in both traditions.
• Buddhist Accounts of Nigantha/Nirgrantha: The text extensively analyzes Buddhist scriptures (Singalese Canon, Sanskrit texts) which mention the Nigantha or Nirgrantha sect and their leader, Nâtaputta (Jñatiputra). The strong similarities in doctrine, names, and life events point to Nâtaputta being the same person as Vardhamana.
• Epigraphic Testimony: The text heavily relies on epigraphic evidence to support the antiquity and independence of Jainism.
  • Ashoka's Edicts: Mention of the Nigantha in Ashoka's Pillar Edicts (3rd century BC) confirms their presence and importance alongside Buddhism and Ajivikas.
  • Khandagiri Inscriptions (Orissa): These inscriptions (1st half of 2nd century BC) indicate Jaina presence in southeastern India.
  • Mathura Inscriptions: Dedicatory inscriptions from the Indo-Scythian period (1st-2nd century AD) provide significant evidence for the flourishing of Jainism in Mathura. They also reveal the existence of various schools (Ganas, Kulas, Shakhâs) within Jainism, providing crucial links to the Svetambara canon (Kalpasutra).
  • Schism: Epigraphic evidence suggests the schism between the Digambara and Svetambara branches occurred long before the 1st century AD.
• Sectarian Divisions:
  • Digambara: Followers of "atmosphere," who traditionally practiced absolute nudity as a sign of holiness (though civilization has led to departures from this).
  • Svetambara: Followers of "white clothing," who believe holiness can be attained even with clothing.
  • These branches are characterized by differences in dogma, literature, and social practices (no intermarriage or commensality).

Jaina Mythology:

• Structured System: Jaina mythology is presented as a "purely constructed system" with a hierarchical classification of gods, all of whom are mortal.
• Tirthankaras: The 24 Tirthankaras of the present age are central. The mythology also accounts for Tirthankaras in past and future aeons and in other continents, leading to a vast number (720 in total).
• Iconography: Detailed descriptions of the Tirthankaras' iconography are provided, including their attendants (Yakshas and Yakshinis), cognizances (chihnas/lânchhaņas), posture, and materials of their images.
• Yakshas and Yakshinis: Legends explain the connection of these attendant spirits to specific Tirthankaras, often involving past lives and protective roles (e.g., Dharanendra and Padmavati for Parsvanatha).
• Vidyadevis: Goddesses of knowledge are also mentioned, with differing inclusions between the Svetambara and Digambara sects.
• Cosmic Geography: The text outlines the Jaina cosmography, including Jambudvipa and other continents with their various regions.
• Hells (Narakas): Jainism also has a series of seven hells.
• Perfection (Siddhas): The paradise of the Siddhas is described, detailing the conditions for achieving perfection and the nature of the perfected souls.
• Gods: The divine beings are classified into four main classes (Bhavanadhipatis, Vyantaras, Jyotishkas, Vaimânikas), with further subdivisions, all of whom are mortal and part of Samsara.

Jaina Gachhas (Schools/Orders):

• The text lists the "Eighty-four Gachhas" of the Jainas, originating from pupils of a high priest named Uddyotana in the 10th century. This list is presented as a recognized, though variable, enumeration of Jaina sub-sects.

Overall Significance:

The work is a foundational scholarly analysis of Jainism, demonstrating its historical depth, its complex philosophical underpinnings, and its significant contributions to Indian culture and religion. It emphasizes the independent origins of Jainism and its historical interactions with Buddhism and Brahmanism, supported by a strong foundation of epigraphic evidence. The detailed accounts of mythology and practice offer a rich understanding of this ancient Indian tradition.