Naykumar Chariu Ke Darshanik Mato Ki Samiksha - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Naykumar Chariu ke Darshanik Mato ki Samiksha" by Jinendra Jain:

This scholarly article, "A Review of the Philosophical Views in Nayakumar Charitra," by Jinendra Jain, delves into the philosophical and religious ideas presented in the Naykumar Charitra, a significant Jain literary work attributed to the 10th-century poet Pushpadanta. The author highlights that medieval Indian literature, particularly Jain literature in Prakrit, Apabhramsha, and Sanskrit, often reflects the religious and philosophical currents of its time. Pushpadanta's works are noted for containing valuable religious and philosophical material alongside their poetic qualities.

The article focuses on the Naykumar Charitra, a popular life story among Jain authors. While the narrative begins naturally, it captivates readers by describing Nagakumar's extraordinary form, obtained as a result of observing the Shrutapanchami vow. The text is rich in discussions and refutations of contemporary philosophical and religious viewpoints, alongside traditional mythological narratives. Despite Jainism being based on principles of renunciation, these narrative poems often portray religious rituals as leading to abundant enjoyment of worldly pleasures. However, the story ultimately concludes with the hero renouncing worldly pursuits, taking initiation, and achieving ultimate liberation (moksha).

Core Jain Philosophical Concepts in Pushpadanta's Work:

Pushpadanta's primary aim in his poetry was to promote devotion to Jinendra and the propagation of Jainism. To achieve this, he frequently pauses the main narrative to elaborate on the principles of Jain dharma and philosophy. The article highlights his detailed explanations of:

Metaphysics (Tattvamimansa): The nature of reality.
Ethics (Acharamimansa): Principles of conduct.
The Nature of Substance (Padarth-vivechan): Jain cosmology, including the classification of Dravyas (substances) as Astikayas (possessing extensions) like Jiva, Ajiva (Pudgala), Dharma, Adharma, and Akasha, and Anāstikāya like Kala (time).
Karma Theory: The concept of karma and its influence on the soul.
Ahimsa (Non-violence): A central tenet of Jainism.
Tiratna (Three Jewels): Samyak Darshan (Right Faith), Samyak Gyan (Right Knowledge), and Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct) as essential for the soul's liberation.
Syadvada (Doctrine of Conditionality) / Anekantavada (Doctrine of Manifoldness): The principle that reality is multifaceted and can be viewed from various perspectives. The article explains Syadvada as the doctrine that establishes the anekantika (non-one-sided) nature of substances, asserting that an object possesses multiple qualities. While one quality may be primary from a certain perspective, others remain secondary. Pushpadanta references this in both Mahapurana and Naykumar Charitra.

Path to Liberation (Moksha):

The article details the Jain path to liberation:

Gunsthanas (Stages of Soul Development): Jain philosophy outlines 14 stages of spiritual development, known as Gunsthanas. Through the gradual progress through these stages, the soul sheds karmic bondage, becomes free from impurities, and attains omniscience (Keval Gyan), leading to Moksha.
Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct): This can only be attained after acquiring Samyak Darshan and Samyak Gyan. It has two forms:
- Sakal Charitra: Practiced by monks who observe the five Mahavratas (Great Vows) of Ahimsa, Satya (Truth), Asteya (Non-stealing), Aparigraha (Non-possession), and Brahmacharya (Celibacy).
- Vikal Charitra: Practiced by householders who observe the five Anuvratas (Minor Vows), three Gunavratas (Qualitative Vows), and four Shikshavratas (Training Vows).

Critique of Other Philosophical Schools:

A significant portion of the article is dedicated to how Pushpadanta, through the Naykumar Charitra, critically examines and refutes the doctrines of various non-Jain schools of thought, including Vedic, Charvaka, Buddhist, and Sankhya philosophies, as well as other erroneous beliefs prevalent at the time.

Vedic Philosophy: Pushpadanta criticizes Vedic traditions that permit animal sacrifice (yajna), meat consumption, and night meals, labeling them as symbols of merit. He questions the logic of claiming non-violence while engaging in hunting and meat-eating, and condemns the priests' indulgence in alcohol and meat while proclaiming night meals as virtuous. He argues that Vedic texts cannot be universally valid proofs because their validity relies on unverified assertions without empirical evidence. He specifically targets Brahmins who perform animal sacrifices to appease deities and ancestors, believing it leads to heavenly rewards. Pushpadanta argues that such actions corrupt true dharma and that merely washing oneself with water cannot purify someone who is inherently impure. He reiterates this criticism in Mahapurana and Jasaharachariu, stating that bathing cannot cleanse those steeped in violence and hypocrisy. He emphasizes that the essence of all scriptures lies in understanding that violence is sin, and non-violence is dharma, equating the killing of any being to self-annihilation. He also questions the Vedic concept of a single, eternal reality (Brahman) by pointing out the observable differences in beings and the changes in a person's life stages from childhood to old age. He also critiques the perceived contradictions in the nature of Vedic deities like Shiva, questioning how someone who incinerates Kamadeva can be attached to Parvati, how a knowledgeable being can consume alcohol, or how one who is considered "all-accomplished" needs a bull as a vehicle.
Charvaka (Lokayata) Philosophy: This materialistic philosophy, which considers only perception as valid proof, posits pleasure as the ultimate goal of life, famously encapsulated in the saying, "Live happily as long as you live; borrow and drink ghee. Once the body is reduced to ashes, how can it return?" Pushpadanta refutes this by highlighting the inherent contradictions in the elements (earth, water, fire, air) and questioning how they can form a unified entity. He argues that if the soul is merely a product of the four elements, then all beings should have similar natures and bodies. He dismisses this as mere sophistry. In Mahapurana, the materialistic principles of Charvaka philosophy are debated, with a minister defending it and another refuting it by arguing that life (consciousness) cannot arise from the mere combination of four elements, citing the example of herbal decoctions which do not produce life. The article notes that Jainism and Buddhism, which accept inference as a valid means of knowledge alongside perception, opposed this materialistic philosophy.
Buddhist Philosophy: Buddhism considers the soul (Atman) as the root of all worldly actions but denies its separate and eternal existence, deeming it impermanent. This view, that everything is momentary, is contrasted with the Jain concept of the soul's enduring nature. While Buddha advocates a Middle Path, Pushpadanta critiques the Buddhist concept of Pratītyasamutpāda (Dependent Origination), which posits that one cause leads to one effect in rapid succession, with the cause ceasing to exist afterward. Pushpadanta questions how an effect like milk can be derived from a cow or an ointment from a lamp if the cow and lamp cease to exist. He further challenges the notion of a continuous stream of beings if each moment brings forth a new life, asking how one who leaves home can return as the same individual. In Mahapurana, the doctrine of momentary existence is debated, with one minister supporting it and another refuting it, arguing that if things were momentary, a lost item would be found by another person, and the concept of memory itself would be invalid.
Sankhya Philosophy: Sankhya posits the universe arises from the union of Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (primordial matter). Pushpadanta lists the 25 principles of Sankhya. He contrasts Prakriti as inert, active, singular, and possessing three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas) with Purusha as conscious, inactive, plural, and free from Gunas. He finds it illogical that neither the inactive Purusha nor the inert Prakriti can create the universe independently, and their union seems contradictory. He questions how a pure, inactive Purusha can be bound by Prakriti and how actions can occur without activity. He also disputes the possibility of union between inert and active Prakriti and conscious, inactive Purusha due to their opposing natures. He concludes that the world is misled by teachers like Kanada, Kapila, Buddha, and the Charvakas.

Other Criticisms:

The article also briefly touches upon Pushpadanta's critique of:

Nyaya and Vaisheshika Philosophies: He criticizes the concept of avatar, questioning how a soul that has attained liberation can re-embody, drawing an analogy with boiled barley seeds that cannot revert to their raw state. He also questions how Nyaya founder Vatsyayana and Vaisheshika founder Kanada could conceptualize and describe the impossible "sky-lotus" as Shiva.
Shaiva Philosophy: He describes the practices of Shaiva followers (Kaulacharis), who use alcohol, meat, fish, mud, and sexual rituals in their worship. He notes their dismissal of other deities and their identification of Akasha (ether) with Shiva.
Misconceptions and Superstitions: He criticizes the veneration of cows and bulls while they are mistreated, the performance of animal sacrifices in Vedic rituals, and the wearing of animal hides as sacred, highlighting the selective focus of the superstitious on only one aspect of these practices.

Conclusion:

The article concludes by stating that Pushpadanta, in Naykumar Charitra and his other works like Kuvalayamalaka, Dharmapariksha, Yashastilaka Champu, etc., consistently engages in the tradition of critiquing opposing viewpoints while expounding Jain principles. This work is presented as a representative literary piece of its time, rich with religious and philosophical content, aiming to guide people towards true dharma and virtuous conduct while deterring them from paths of misdeed.