Mulachar Me Varnit Achar Niyam Swetambara Agam Sahitya Ke Pariprekshya Me

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Mulachar me Varnit Achar Niyam Swetambara Agam Sahitya ke Pariprekshya me" by Arun Pratap Sinh, presented in English:

The article "Achar Niyam Varnit in Mulachar: In the Perspective of Shvetambara Agama Literature" by Dr. Arun Pratap Singh explores the ethical rules described in the Mulachar and analyzes them in the context of Shvetambara Agama literature.

Core Argument:

The central thesis of the article is that the Mulachar, although traditionally considered a Digambara text, exhibits significant similarities and incorporates substantial material from Shvetambara Agama literature. This suggests that Mulachar might have originated from the Yapaniya tradition, which had a unique stance, accepting nudity like the Digambaras but also embracing Shvetambara Agamas and the concept of female liberation.

Key Points and Analysis:

1. Emphasis on Conduct in Jainism: The article begins by highlighting the paramount importance of conduct (Achar) in Jainism, placing it as a crucial component of the path to liberation, alongside right faith (Samyak-Darshan) and right knowledge (Samyak-Gyan). Conduct is seen as the practical application of faith and knowledge.

2. Mulachar's Origin and the Yapaniya Tradition: While Mulachar is widely accepted as a Digambara text, the author presents evidence suggesting it may have originally belonged to the Yapaniya tradition. This tradition was characterized by:

   • Nudity: Similar to Digambaras, they emphasized the nudity of monks.
   • Acceptance of Shvetambara Agamas: Unlike the Digambaras, they acknowledged the authority of Shvetambara scriptures.
   • Female Liberation: They, like the Shvetambaras, believed in the possibility of women achieving liberation.
   • The author posits that Mulachar's author was familiar with and believed in Shvetambara Agamas and the concept of female liberation, making the reflection of Shvetambara literature in Mulachar natural.

3. Mulachar's Structure and Content vs. Shvetambara Agamas: The article proceeds to analyze specific chapters (Adhikaras) of Mulachar and compare their content with Shvetambara texts:

   • Chapter 1: Mulaguna Adhikara (Fundamental Vows):

     • Mulachar lists 28 fundamental vows (Mulagunas), including the five great vows (Mahavratas), five carefulness (Samitis), control of senses, six daily duties (Sadaavashyak), plucking hair (Keshancha), nudity (Achalakyya), no bathing (Asnaan), sleeping on the ground (Kshitishayan), no teeth-brushing (Adantdhavan), and eating while standing (Sthiti Bhojan).
     • Shvetambara texts list 27 Mulagunas. While the number differs, the underlying principle is "restraint" (Sanyam).
     • Key Difference: Nudity: The most significant difference lies in nudity. Shvetambaras, who don't consider clothing a hindrance to liberation, don't list nudity as a fundamental vow. Mulachar, while representing a tradition that valued nudity, is less rigid than other Digambara texts, advocating for following the vow of non-possession (Aparigraha) "according to one's capacity" (Sakachyya).

   • Chapter 2: Brihatpratyakhyana-Samstara Adhikara (Great Renunciation):

     • This chapter primarily deals with Samlekhana (the process of voluntary fasting and spiritual preparation for death).
     • The author states that most verses in this chapter are borrowed from Shvetambara Prakirnaka (miscellaneous texts) called Aaturapratyakhyana and Mahapratyakhyana.
     • Numerous examples are provided, showing striking similarities in language and sentiment, with minor variations attributed to the difference between Maharashtri and Sauraseni Prakrit.
     • The introductory verse of this chapter is also found in Mahapratyakhyana.

   • Chapter 3: Samkshepa-Pratyakhyana-Samstara Adhikara (Concise Renunciation):

     • Similar to the previous chapter, most verses are taken from the Mahapratyakhyana Prakirnaka.
     • The initial verse, a veneration of the Jinas, is comparable to verses in Mahapratyakhyana.
     • Examples are given comparing verses related to fear of death and birth, and the nature of the soul.

   • Comparison of Language and Antiquity: The author argues that the Prakirnaka texts are older than Mulachar based on linguistic evidence (use of "na" vs. "ṇa") and the fact that Mulachar explicitly names these Prakirnakas, proving their antiquity.

   • Chapter 4: Samachari Adhikara (Rules of Conduct):

     • This chapter discusses Samachari (conduct rules).
     • The 10 Samacharis mentioned in Mulachar have parallels in the Shvetambara text Uttaradhyayana Sutra. The fundamental source appears to be the same, with minor differences in order.
     • Significance of Female Monks (Sadhvis): This chapter details the rules and duties of female monks (Sadhvis), indicating their important role in the Mulachar tradition. This reinforces the Yapaniya connection, as they allowed female monastics to wear at least one garment, aligning with the Shvetambara view and contradicting the strict Digambara practice.

   • Chapter 5: Panchaachara Adhikara (Five Types of Conduct):

     • This chapter covers Darshanachara (conduct related to perception), Gyanachara (conduct related to knowledge), Charitraachara (conduct related to right conduct), Tapachara (conduct related to austerities), and Viryachara (conduct related to energy).
     • Most verses in this chapter are comparable to Uttaradhyayana Sutra.
     • Specific examples are provided, showing word-for-word parallels with verses from Uttaradhyayana Sutra and the Shvetambara text Jiva Samasa.

   • Chapter 6: Pindashuddhi Adhikara (Purity of Alms):

     • This chapter focuses on the purity of food and alms.
     • The methods described, particularly the etiquette of begging, are similar to those found in the austerity chapter of Uttaradhyayana Sutra.

   • Chapter 7: Shadaavashyaka Adhikara (Six Essential Duties):

     • The author points out that Mulachar's author explicitly states in the beginning of this chapter that it was written concisely by referencing the Avashyaka Niryukti (a Shvetambara text). This confirms Mulachar as a compilation.
     • The author concludes that Mulachar is a compilation, not an original work of a single author.

   • Chapter 8: Dvadaashaanupreksha Adhikara (Twelve Reflections):

     • Discusses the 12 Anupreksha (contemplations).
     • The form of these contemplations is similar in both traditions. The ancient Shvetambara text Maranavibhaktiv has a systematic description of Anupreksha. The author finds no significant conceptual difference.

   • Chapter 9: Angarabhavana Adhikara (Austerities of the Homeless):

     • Deals with the nature of monastic life. While much of the content can be found in ancient Shvetambara texts, the author has not yet explicitly found matching verses.

   • Chapter 10: Samaysara Adhikara (Essence of Time/Conduct):

     • Primarily describes monastic conduct. It praises nudity (Achalakyya).
     • However, the author suggests that most verses in this chapter are also borrowed from Shvetambara texts, further supporting the compilation theory.
     • Discussion on Kalpas: The chapter mentions 10 Shramana Kalpas (monastic rules). While the concept is accepted in both traditions, there are differences in order and interpretation. For example, the interpretation of Paryushana Kalpa by Mulachar's commentator differs from the Shvetambara understanding.
     • Causes of Unchastity: The chapter lists 10 causes of unchastity, comparable to the 16th chapter of Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Brahmacharya Samadhisthana).
     • Papashramana: The concept of Papashramana is discussed, with parallels in the 17th chapter of Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Papashramaniya).

   • Chapter 11: Shila-Guna Adhikara (Virtues of Morality):

     • Mentions 10 Shramana Dharma (monastic virtues), which are originally found in the Shvetambara text Samavayang.

   • Chapter 12: Paryapti Adhikara (Adequacies):

     • Discusses the six Paryaptis (stages of development). There is no general difference between Shvetambara and Digambara traditions on this.
     • The mention of Shalaka Purusha (legendary figures) in this chapter raises doubts about Mulachar's antiquity, as this concept developed later.

4. Evidence for Compilation:

   • Repetition of Verses: Some verses appear twice in Mulachar without any change, suggesting that entire groups of verses were taken from different sources rather than isolated ones. This is seen as irrefutable evidence of its compilation nature.
   • References to Shvetambara Texts: Mulachar instructs monks to read specific texts, including "Patteyabaddhikathitam" (likely referring to Uttaradhyayana Sutra and Isibhasia - Rishi Bhasita, both Shvetambara Prakirnakas).
   • Mention of Specific Texts: In chapter 5, Mulachar lists texts to be read during Aswadhyaya (periods of not studying), including Aradhana Niyukti, Marana Vibhakti (a Shvetambara text), Sangraha, Stuti, Pratyakhyana texts (Aatura Pratyakhyana, Mahapratyakhyana), Avashyaka, and Dharmakatha (likely Jnana Dharmakatha). Many of these are explicitly Shvetambara works.
   • Chandrayavyadha: The mention of "Chandrayavyadha" in chapter 2, which the author identifies as a Shvetambara Prakirnaka, further strengthens the argument.

5. Female Liberation as a Key Indicator:

   • Mulachar's acceptance of female liberation is presented as irrefutable proof of its connection to the Yapaniya tradition.
   • The author cites the recently published Shakatayana Vyakarana (a prominent Yapaniya text) as also accepting female liberation.
   • In contrast, the Digambara tradition believed women needed to be reborn as men to achieve liberation, hence interpreting the 19th Tirthankara Mallinath (a woman in Shvetambara tradition) as male. The Digambara text Suttapahuda prohibits female initiation.
   • Mulachar, however, not only permits female initiation but also lays down rules for them and considers them capable of achieving liberation.

Conclusion:

Dr. Arun Pratap Singh concludes that Mulachar draws heavily from Shvetambara Agama literature. If one overlooks minor differences like the interpretation of nudity and Prakrit language variations, it appears very much like a Shvetambara text. The author asserts that Mulachar is a compilation text from the Yapaniya tradition, which, while valuing monastic nudity, also accepted Shvetambara scriptures and the concept of female liberation. The extensive references and incorporation of Shvetambara material, along with the crucial point of female liberation, clearly distinguish it from the mainstream Digambara tradition and firmly place its origins within the Yapaniya school. The attempts by Digambara commentators to reconcile these references within their own framework are deemed unsatisfactory.