Mulachar Ka Anushilan - Book Summary

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Mulachar ka Anushilan: A Study of the Conduct of Ascetics

This work, "Mulachar ka Anushilan" by Kailashchandra Shastri, delves into the significance and content of the Mulachar, a pivotal Jain text. The central argument is that Mulachar serves as the foundational and representative text for the conduct of Jain ascetics (munis) in the Digambara tradition.

1. The Importance of Muni Ācāra (Ascetic Conduct):

Ācāra as Dharma: Jainism is fundamentally a religion of conduct (ācāra), also known as caritra. Acharya Kundakunda, a highly revered Jain figure, explicitly stated in his Pravachanasara that "caritra khalu dhammo" – conduct is indeed Dharma.
Distinction between Lay and Ascetic Conduct: While both lay followers (shravakas) and ascetics (munis, shramanas, anagaras) follow conduct, the fundamental and primary conduct in the inward-looking Jain tradition is that of the munis.
Hierarchy of Spiritual Attainment: The munis hold the lowest rank among the Pancha Parmeshthi (five supreme beings), yet it is through muni dharma that the highest Parmeshthi state is achieved.
Primacy of Muni Dharma Teaching: Ancient tradition dictated that ascetics should first preach muni dharma to their audiences, not lay dharma. This is because an audience with high spiritual aspirations might become entangled in lay dharma if it is presented first.
Critique of Premature Lay Dharma Teaching: The text cites Acharya Amritchandra from Purusharthasiddhyupaya to criticize teachers who preach lay dharma before muni dharma. Such teachers are deemed ignorant ("alpa-mati") and the lay dharma itself is called "apada" (inappropriate place), as the true "pada" (destination) is muni dharma. This is supported by the Acharanga Sutra, which primarily discusses ascetic conduct. Lay followers observe their vows with the aspiration of eventually becoming munis, with their eleven pratimas (vows) serving as steps towards that goal.

2. Mulachar as the First Comprehensive Text on Muni Ācāra:

Kundakunda's Contribution and the Gap: Acharya Kundakunda is seen as a foundational figure in the Digambara tradition, notably for his clear prohibition of liberation while clothed and for females, which led to schisms. His works like Pahuda, Charitra Pahuda, Bhava Pahuda, Moksha Pahuda, Linga Pahuda, Niyamasara, and Pravachanasara primarily focus on muni dharma. However, these texts offer a summary rather than a detailed and comprehensive exposition of muni conduct. None are explicitly named "Ācāra," and none are considered direct equivalents to the lost Acharanga Sutra.
Mulachar Fills the Void: Mulachar is presented as the text that fulfills this gap in the Digambara tradition by providing a representative and comprehensive account of muni ācāra.
Vasunandi's Testimony: The commentary by Acharya Vasunandi supports this, stating that Mulachar is based on the Shrutaskandha and is 18,000 padas (verses/sections) in length. It covers mulaguna (basic vows), pratyakhyana (renunciation), samayachara (timely conduct), panchachara (five conducts), pindashuddhi (purity of alms), shadāvasyakas (six essential duties), dvadashanupreksha (twelve reflections), anagarābhāvana (contemplation of the homeless ascetic), samayasar (essence of time/self), shilaguna prastara (elaboration of virtuous conduct), and paryapti (perfection of faculties).
Connection to Acharanga Sutra: Vasunandi believes Mulachar is a condensation of the Acharanga Sutra composed by Ganadharas, containing the same twelve sections. While direct proof is lacking and the Shvetambara Acharanga differs, the two verses cited by Virasena in his Dhavala commentary when describing the Acharanga Sutra's content are found in the tenth chapter of Mulachar. This strongly suggests Mulachar's acceptance, authenticity, and antiquity as a successor to the Acharanga Sutra.

3. The Antiquity of Mulachar:

Virasena's Awareness: The presence of verses from Mulachar in Virasena's Dhavala commentary indicates that Mulachar was known to him.
Yativrishabha's Mention: More significantly, Yativrishabha, Virasena's predecessor, explicitly mentions Mulachar in his Tiloyapannatti. The text cites a passage from Tiloyapannatti regarding the lifespan of Indra's consorts, which is precisely mirrored in the twelfth chapter (Paryapti Adhikara) of Mulachar.
Dating Mulachar: The Tiloyapannatti is dated to the late 5th century CE. Therefore, Mulachar must have been composed around the 4th century CE, preceding Tiloyapannatti.
Etymology and the "Mul" Prefix: The name "Mulachar" is formed from "Mula" (root/fundamental) and "Achara" (conduct). The "Mula" prefix likely refers to the fundamental conduct, akin to "mulaguna" (basic vows). It also connects to the "Mul Sangh," the original Jain monastic order. The term "Nirgrantha" (unclothed, unbound) was the ancient name for the Digambara tradition. By the 4th-5th centuries CE, the name "Mula" was associated with this tradition, making "Mulachar" the conduct of the "Mul Sangh" a fitting title.

4. Mulachar's Originality and Influences:

Collection vs. Originality: Some scholars initially considered Mulachar a compilation, but later acknowledged its original contributions.
Shared Verses: Mulachar contains verses also found in other ancient texts, including the Shvetambara Avasyaka Niryukti (especially in the Sadāvasyaka chapter) and Pindashuddhi Niyukti, as well as Bhagavati Aradhana.
Uncertainty of Attribution: The presence of shared verses raises questions about who borrowed from whom. However, it rules out the possibility of Mulachar being a work of Acharya Kundakunda, despite its attribution in some ancient manuscripts. Kundakunda's works possess a distinct stylistic and spiritual depth not found in Mulachar. Conversely, Kundakunda's verses are found in later ancient texts like Tiloyapannatti, which is natural given his stature.
Shared Heritage: The fundamental unity of the Shvetambara and Digambara traditions from a common source explains the presence of ancient verses in both.
Attribution to Vattakera: The commentator Vasunandi attributes Mulachar to Vattakera Acharya. However, there is no other mention of an Acharya with this name, leading to speculation.
Consistency of Presentation: Vasunandi's commentary and the uttarana (introductory verses) for each chapter consistently present the text as it was found, not as something he compiled, indicating its established form.

5. Structural and Thematic Overview of Mulachar:

Twelve Chapters: Mulachar comprises twelve chapters: Mulagunadhikara, Brihat Pratyakhyana Samstara Stavādhikara, Samkshep Pratyakhyanādhikara, Samāchārādhikara, Panchāchārādhikara, Pindashuddhi Adhikara, Sadāvasyakādhikara, Dvadashānu prekshādhikara, Anagarābhāvanādhikara, Samayasārādhikara, Shilaguna Prastārādhikara, and Paryaptināmādhikara.
Pledge to Teach: Each chapter begins with a pledge to teach its subject matter, except for the second and third chapters which focus on the vow of sallekhana (regulated fasting before death).
Paryapti Chapter: The final chapter on paryapti (perfection of faculties) touches upon karananuyoga (theory of action) concerning the soul. While not directly about ascetic conduct, the text argues that munis need this knowledge for jivaraksha (protection of life). The commentator calls it a "collection of the essence of all philosophies."
Verse Count: The total verse count is 1251, with variations in numbering between editions.
Comparison with Later Works: Mulachar's structure and content served as a basis for later works like Acharya Vīranandi's Ācārasāra (12th century CE) and Chamuṇḍarāya's Charitrasāra. Pandit Āshādhar also drew upon Mulachar for his Anagaradharmāmṛta.

6. Kundakunda and Mulachar: A Comparative Analysis:

Debt but Not Authorship: While Mulachar is indebted to Kundakunda, the text argues it is unlikely to be his work.
Differences in Style and Spirituality: Kundakunda's works (Niyamasara, Pravachanasara, Samyaksara) exhibit a unique clarity, spiritual depth, and "adhyatmik put" (spiritual essence) that are absent in Mulachar.
Divergent Views on Vows:
- Satyavrata (Truthfulness): Mulachar's definition of truthfulness includes not speaking a truth that causes distress to others, which is seen as more suited to lay followers. Kundakunda's definition in Niyamasara focuses on abandoning the mental states of false speech due to passion, aversion, or delusion, emphasizing the renunciation of the intention of lying.
- Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Mulachar describes seeing women as mothers, daughters, or sisters and renouncing talk about them. Kundakunda's Niyamasara emphasizes not entertaining desires towards women's forms and remaining free from sexual thoughts, highlighting the internal mental state as the core of the vow.
- Parigraha Tyaga (Renunciation of Possessions): Mulachar's definition includes renouncing possessions "according to one's strength," which is problematic. Kundakunda stresses complete renunciation driven by contemplation.
The "Samayasara" Chapter: Mulachar contains a chapter titled Samayasara, but it lacks the profound spiritual insight of Kundakunda's famous work. While it offers valuable ethical guidance for ascetics, it doesn't reflect Kundakunda's philosophical depth.

7. Inner Contents of Mulachar (Ascetic Conduct):

Initiation (Diksha): The text briefly mentions that an ascetic aspirant seeks permission from relatives, approaches a gani (leader), bows, requests initiation, and then undergoes hair-plucking and becomes naked, embarking on ascetic life.
Types of Ascetics: Kundakunda distinguishes between shuddhopayogi (purely contemplative) and shubhopayogi (auspiciously contemplative) ascetics. The former are described as having devotion to revered beings and teachers, while the latter are involved in teaching, guiding disciples, and worshipping Jinendra. Mulachar does not make this distinction.
Sangha Leadership: Mulachar mandates that an ascetic should not reside in a Sangha lacking an acharya, upādhyāya, pravartaka, sthira, and ganadhara. These roles are defined as: acharya (disciplinarian, bestower of initiation), upādhyāya (teacher of Dharma), pravartaka (leader of conduct), sthira (guardian of rules), and ganadhara (guardian of the Sangha). Pravachanasara mentions an ikshāguru (initiation guru) and niyāpaka (one who rectifies faults).
Gan, Gaccha, Kula, Sangh: The text discusses smaller divisions within the Sangha: a gana of three ascetics, a gaccha of seven ascetics. Kula refers to the lineage of disciples from a single guru, and Sangh is the overall community.
Caution Against Ganas: A striking point is the advice in the Samayasara chapter that it's better to marry than to enter a gana if the gana is a source of faults. The commentary explains this likely due to the prevalence of "pārśvastha" (loosely attached) ascetics in the Sangha at that time, leading to distractions.
Mulagunas (28 Basic Virtues): The first chapter details the 28 mulagunas: five great vows, five samitis (careful movements), five sensory restraints, six āvasyakas (essential duties), hair-plucking, nudity, no bathing, sleeping on the ground, no teeth-brushing, eating while standing, and eating once a day.
Ascetic Necessities: Based on these virtues, the ascetic's needs are minimal: nudity means no clothing. A drinking vessel (kamandalu) and a peacock-feather whisk (mayurpichchhika) are the only possessions for purity and life protection.
Dwelling Places: Ascetics should avoid places with passions, disrespect, sensory attractions, women, suffering, or dangers. Suitable dwelling places include caves, forest roots, deserted buildings, and roots of trees, as they foster dispassion.
Movement (Irya Samiti): Ascetics should generally wander, except during the four months of varshāvas (monsoon retreat). Movement should be with iryā samiti (careful walking), observing light and dark creatures. Specific guidelines are given for safe travel during the day, avoiding impure paths, and maintaining awareness of living beings.
Renunciation of Possessions: Ascetics are to be detached like wind, not causing harm to grass, bark, leaves, fruits, flowers, or seeds. They should not dig the earth, fetch water, or ignite fire.
Rules of Stay: While wandering is the norm, ascetics should stay in one place during the varshāvas. Generally, they should stay in a city for five days and a village for one night to avoid attachment.
Ten Kalpas (Rules of Stay): The Samayasara chapter outlines ten kalpas, including a one-month stay before and after varshāvas, to understand people's conditions and for adherence to vows, and to alleviate distress from parting with disciples.
Alms (Bhiksha Bhojana): The text specifies meal times between three ghatikas after sunrise and three ghatikas before sunset. Eating within three muhurts is considered inferior, two muhurts is moderate, and one muhurt is excellent.
Purity of Alms: Food must be accepted with awareness of its source, type, time, and mental state, and must be free from 46 defects, including being pure in nine ways (mind, speech, body, deed, permission, etc.) and free from fourteen impurities.
Meal Etiquette: Ascetics should stand unsupported, with feet together or four fingers apart, and take alms in their cupped hands, filling half the stomach, a quarter with water, and leaving a quarter for air. The portion is about 32 mouthfuls.
Daily Duties: Ascetics should spend their time in svadhyaya (self-study) and meditation. The day involves devotion, studying scriptures, and then cleansing. They proceed for alms when there is no visible smoke from houses or sounds of grinding, moving neither too fast nor too slow, without discrimination of wealth, without talking or stopping, and avoiding impure households or dangerous animals. They do not look at women bathing or applying makeup.
Six Āvasyakas (Essential Duties): These are Sāmāyika (equanimity), Chaturvimsati-stava (praise of 24 Tirthankaras), Vandana (obeisance), Pratikramana (repentance), Pratyakhyana (vow of abstention), and Kayotsarga (abandonment of the body).
- Sāmāyika: Achieved through equanimity towards all beings, absence of passion, control of senses, and engagement in contemplation and shukla dhyana (pure meditation).
- Chaturvimsati-stava: Recited while standing with a calm mind.
- Vandana: A gesture of respect involving bowing, circling, and touching the head. There are various kritikarmas (rituals of reverence) throughout the day.
- Pratikramana: A process of repentance for faults, with six types: daily, nightly, airapathika, fortnightly, four-monthly, and yearly. The text highlights that for Rishabhadeva and Mahavir, repentance was mandatory, while for others, it was for actual faults. This is attributed to the firmer disciples of the middle Tirthankaras.
- Pratyakhyana: The vow of abstention from certain substances due to faults or for austerity, with ten types.
- Kayotsarga: The stillness of the body, performed for purification from violations of vows or fears. The minimum duration is an antarmuhurta (less than a muhurta).
Comparison with Kundakunda's Niyamasara on Āvasyakas: Kundakunda's perspective on āvasyakas in Niyamasara differs, suggesting mental repentance and vow-taking as primary, with physical rituals being secondary if one has the capacity.
Penance (Prayashchitta): The text describes ten types of penance for purifying past sins: ālochana (confession), pratikramana (repentance), ubhaya (both), viveka (discrimination), vyutsarga (renunciation), tapa (austerity), chheda (breaking of vows), mula (original initiation), parihara (exclusion), and shraddhan (faith). The text provides definitions for each.
Interaction with Nuns (Āryā): Mulachar strictly prohibits solitary or unnecessary interaction with nuns (āryās). If a nun has questions, she must be accompanied by a ganadhara who is knowledgeable, restrained, and ethical. Improper interaction leads to faults and penance. Nuns are also described as living austere lives, similar to munis in their conduct.

In conclusion, "Mulachar ka Anushilan" by Kailashchandra Shastri presents Mulachar as a vital and comprehensive text in the Digambara Jain tradition, detailing the rigorous and meticulous conduct expected of ascetics. It establishes Mulachar's antiquity and its foundational role in shaping subsequent monastic literature, while also offering a critical comparison with the works of Acharya Kundakunda, highlighting both shared principles and distinct philosophical approaches.