Mudbidrina Jain Bhandarna Prachin Tadpatriya Chitro

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Mudbidrina Jain Bhandarna Prachin Tadpatriya Chitro" by Saryu V Doshi:

This article discusses the ancient palm-leaf illustrated manuscripts found in the Jain Bhandara (repository) of Mudbidri, a town located east of Mangalore in the state of Mysore. Mudbidri is renowned for its rich collection of ancient Jain handwritten texts and sculptures of the Digambara sect. Specifically, the article focuses on three palm-leaf manuscripts preserved in the Siddhant-masadi Bhandara: Shatkhandagama, Mahabandha, and Kashayapahud. While these texts are now well-known, they contain some rare illustrations that require detailed analysis of their meaning and artistic merit.

The author notes that these illustrated manuscripts gained scholarly attention at an exhibition of manuscripts in Delhi in January 1964, where good quality photographs could be taken. Dr. Motichandra also pointed to these illustrations during the Tagore Lectures at the University of Pennsylvania in America in 1964. The article posits that these are likely the oldest surviving illustrated manuscripts from South India and hold significant importance in the history of ancient Indian painting, particularly within the Digambara Jain tradition.

Content and Significance of the Texts: The three illustrated texts – Shatkhandagama, Mahabandha, and Kashayapahud – expound the Jain theory of karma and are considered authoritative texts for the philosophy of the Digambara sect. According to Digambara belief, the teachings of Bhagwan Mahavir, originally compiled into twelve Angas by his Ganadharas, gradually diminished through oral transmission. Only remnants of the fifth and twelfth Angas were known to a few Acharyas. In the early Christian era, driven by the urgent need to prevent the rapid destruction of ancient Jain literature, these Acharyas consolidated and documented the then-prevailing knowledge.

• Kashayapahud was composed by Acharya Gunadhara, detailing the passions (kashayas) – anger, pride, delusion, and greed – that are the causes of karmic bondage.
• Shatkhandagama was systematically compiled into six parts by Acharya Dharasena, who taught all his knowledge to his brilliant disciples Pushpadanta and Bhutali. The first three parts deal with the soul's connection to karma, and the remaining three discuss the types of edible karmas and more.
• Later centuries saw the creation of many commentaries on these texts. Virasena's renowned commentary became so integrated with the original works that it is now considered part of them. Virasena, an expert in logic, wrote a substantial commentary called Dhavala on the first five parts of Shatkhandagama. The sixth part, Mahabandha, was considered self-explanatory and did not require a commentary. Mahabandha is also known as Mahadhavala. Virasena also attempted to write a commentary called Jayadhavala on Kashayapahud. However, he only completed the third part before his death, leaving the monumental task to his disciple Jinaseana. Together, their efforts resulted in the Jayadhavala commentary, comprising 60,000 verses.

Description of the Manuscripts and Illustrations: The three palm-leaf manuscripts – Shatkhandagama, Mahabandha, and Kashayapahud – were written in the first quarter of the 12th century CE. Their dimensions are approximately 75 x 6 cm, 72 x 547 cm, and 68.5 x 7 cm, respectively, containing seven, seven, and fourteen illustrations. The original Prakrit compositions are written in the Kannada script. Virasena's commentary is in a mixed language of Prakrit and Sanskrit. The Shatkhandagama manuscript indicates its writing year as 1113 CE.

Artistic and Iconographic Analysis: The illustrations are primarily important from an iconographic perspective, serving religious and spiritual purposes rather than purely aesthetic ones. They are compared to similar illustrations in illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts from Eastern India and Nepal (Pala art) and 13th-century Western Indian paintings depicting goddesses and Tirthankaras. The inclusion of divine figures in these illustrations might have been intended to imbue the texts with divine power and efficacy. The seeds of later developments, such as intricate tantric mandalas, can be found in these early illustrations.

The illustrations depict Jain deities, monks, and lay followers (shravakas and shravikas). They also feature decorative motifs of lotus and floral creepers. The compositions are made more attractive and effective by being enclosed within beautiful, ornamental borders. These borders, though simple, seem to be inspired by contemporary textile patterns, as described in the 12th-century text Manasollasa. Some borders consist of plain bands of varying widths and colors, featuring patterns like triangular shapes, triple lines, curved lines, or dots.

The artists show a particular interest in floral motifs, using them as decorative bands or borders. They also skillfully fill empty spaces between arches (toranas) with small lines (as seen in Figure 5). The artists' ingenuity, craftsmanship, and familiarity with figures are exceptionally evident in the circular lotus decorations (Figure 1), where stylized lotus petals are rendered as beautiful geometric arrangements of interlocking circles.

Iconography of Deities and Figures: The majority of the illustrations are of deities, particularly goddesses. Tirthankaras are depicted in the karyotsarga (standing in ascetic posture, Figure 2) or padmasana (seated in meditation) positions. Figures of Bahubali and Parshvanatha are shown entwined with grapevines. Other Tirthankaras are difficult to identify due to the absence of distinguishing emblems (lalanchana).

The article highlights the presence of well-known Yakshinis in these illustrations. The most beautiful among them is Padmavati, the tutelary goddess of Parshvanatha. Seated on a pedestal, she holds an ankus (goad) and a noose (pasha) in her upper arms, with the lower right hand in abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness) and the left in varada mudra (gesture of boon-giving). Adorned with a radiant crown and a seven-hooded cobra canopy, she is further embellished with other ornaments. Her mount, Kullutasarp, depicted with a serpent's head and a swan's body, is shown to her right.

A beautiful illustration depicts a goddess riding a bull (Figure 3). This figure possesses a liveliness not seen in other goddesses. The side profile of the goddess on the bull, the bull's tilted head, and its knotted, flying tail convey a sense of dynamism, contrasting with the static poses often found in other depictions.

Another goddess is depicted with four arms, holding an ankus and a noose in her upper arms, but her lower hands are not clearly visible. Iconographically, this figure presents a puzzle. While it shares characteristics with Padmavati, its bull mount suggests it might be Rohini Devi, the yakshi of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha. The dual characteristics make the identification of this figure ambiguous.

Another goddess, with four arms, is shown with a decorated peacock. She also holds an ankus and a noose in her upper arms, and her lower right hand is in abhaya mudra. Her left hand is unclear. This goddess is also difficult to identify.

Two other illustrations, largely similar, show a goddess seated on a rectangular pedestal with a worshipper and a peacock nearby. In one of these, the goddess holds a book in her lower left hand, suggesting she is Sarasvati Devi. The other illustration, similar to the aforementioned, shows an ankus and a noose in her upper hands and the lower right hand in abhaya mudra.

The article points out that in Jain iconography, particularly within the Digambara tradition, both Padmavati and Sarasvati Devi are depicted with an ankus and a noose. The variation in the color of the goddess in these illustrations – white in one and dark in another – is noteworthy. While Sarasvati Devi is typically depicted as fair, here other goddesses are also shown in both white and dark complexions. There are three instances where a goddess with similar attributes is depicted in both white and dark forms, and these depictions are almost identical. The posture of the goddesses, their identifying marks, the number of attendants, expressions, attire, and hairstyles are largely similar, with the only difference being the color. One is depicted as red and the other as yellow (Figure 4). This is likened to the Buddhist concept of the white and dark Tara.

A striking observation is that in different states of depiction, the upper two arms and the lower right arm of the goddesses consistently bear the same distinguishing marks. The lower left hand sometimes holds a biru fruit or is in varada mudra. However, no general principle can be derived from the characteristics of this last hand.

Two illustrations depict Ambika Devi with two arms. In one, she is seated on her lion mount with her two sons. In the other, she is seated on a pedestal, with her two sons shown on either side, seemingly on lions (Figure 5).

There are four illustrations of Yakshas. One depicts a two-armed Yaksha, resembling Kubera, seated between two trees, with his elephant mount shown beside him. This figure can be identified as Sarvarna (Sarvahva) Yaksha according to Digambara tradition (Figure 6). Other Yakshas are not clearly identifiable, except for one with a serpent's hood above its crown, which can be identified as Dharanendra, the guardian Yaksha of Parshvanatha.

Illustrations of donors or devotees are found only on one leaf of the Shatkhandagama manuscript, at both ends. However, the figures in these are eroded. The devotees are shown wearing a dhoti and an upper cloth. One person has a pointed beard and is wearing ornaments and a blue jacket, which resembles the jackets seen in 12th-century Western Indian paintings.

Stylistic Comparisons and Artistic Evolution: Given the close temporal proximity of the copying of these three manuscripts, there are no significant stylistic differences among their illustrations. However, the illustrations within each manuscript possess their own distinct character, while remaining within the conventions of contemporary art. The Shatkhandagama illustrations predominantly feature single figures, whereas the Kashayapahud illustrations often contain three to five figures per image, exhibiting more elaborate backgrounds and greater detail.

Two main stylistic approaches are evident in the ancient illustrations: one emphasizing line drawing, and the other relying heavily on color. In the latter, known as the "Colour Modelling Style," variations in color depth are used to highlight different parts of the figures. Attempts were also made to depict volume through varying line thickness (Figures 3, 5). In some instances, a linear technique was employed, characterized by exaggeration in the rendering of body parts and unnatural postures or positions, leading to a lack of proportionality. The illustrations in Shatkhandagama are considered more impactful and depict figures with a sense of grandeur.

The illustrations in the Mahabandha manuscript show an attempt to create volume by drawing outlines around the figures and using subtle color gradations. Lines are curved to suggest the body's thickness (Figures 3, 5). The Kashayapahud manuscript primarily utilizes the linear technique. In facial depictions, the cheek on the opposite side is compressed, and the eye on that side is shown fully, with its end hanging unsupported in space. This exaggeration in depicting body parts leads to a lack of symmetry. Female breasts are shown large, and the waist is depicted as excessively narrow (Figures 2, 4). The somewhat rustic or clumsy rendering of hands and feet is attributed more to the artist's mindset than to a lack of skill. This carelessness is particularly noticeable in the extremities of the body parts.

Architectural elements are minimally depicted. Archways with three or five curves are commonly seen, beneath which deities are seated. Some of these arches appear more ornate, possibly inspired by contemporary architectural styles. Tree depictions are conventional. One type features red dots in the center of the trees with blooming leaves around them. Another type has treetops made of small roses (Figure 4). A third type features prominently curved leaves. The primary colors used are dark green, yellow, and red, with black used for outlines.

Connection to Sculptural Art: It is important to note that the art of these illustrations is closely related to the art of contemporary Kannada sculptures. The use of scroll-like decorative bands, the iconography of deities, the mudras (hand gestures) or arrangements of limbs, and the style of ornamentation and wearing them are common in both sculptures and paintings, proving their interconnectedness. The depiction of lions is also similar in sculptures and paintings. It should be remembered that 12th-century Odissi paintings and sculptures were inspired by similar religious and aesthetic ideals.

Conclusion: While not artistically monumental, these illustrated works are significant as rare surviving examples of ancient South Indian painting. Prior to the discovery of these illustrated manuscripts from Mudbidri, the existence of such textual painting traditions was largely speculative. These illustrations offer a glimpse into a splendid and glorious past. Furthermore, they reveal several commonalities with the Western Indian painting styles of Gujarat and Rajasthan. These paintings underscore the deep connection between painting and sculpture and are precursors to the development of painting in South India in later periods.