Metals And Allise During Thakkar Feruz Time

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This article, "Metals and Alloys During Thakkur Pheru's Period, 1290-1318 A.D." by N.L. Jain, highlights the often-overlooked contributions of Thakkur Pheru to the history of Indian chemistry. While scholars like Charaka, Sushruta, and Nagarjuna are frequently mentioned, Pheru, a 14th-century Jain scholar, is notably absent from many historical accounts despite his significant work on chemical knowledge, particularly concerning mercury, in his book Dravya Pariksha.

Thakkur Pheru and His Works:

• Thakkur Pheru was a Jain, born in Kannana near Mahendragarh, to Chanda of the Shrimal family.
• He lived and composed eight books between 1290 and 1318 AD, during the reigns of Sultans Alauddin and Qutubuddin.
• He served as the Minister of Treasuries in Delhi, which likely provided him with practical knowledge of coin-making processes and materials.
• His first book, Yugapradhana Chatuspadi (1290 AD), written in Apabhramsha, focuses on the history of Jain Acharyas.
• He wrote seven other books in Prakrit, seven of which are available and deal with practical, worldly knowledge: mathematics (Ganita Sara), architecture (Vastu Sara), astronomy (Jyotisa Sara), gem examination (Ratnapariksa), metals and coins (Dravya Pariksha), preparation and properties of metals and compounds (Dhatutpattih), and geology (Bhagarbha Prakasa).
• Books numbered 5, 6, and 7 (Ratnapariksa, Dravya Pariksha, and Dhatutpattih) are of particular interest to chemists, detailing metallurgical practices.
• A compendium of the first seven books was found in a Jain Gyanbhandar in Calcutta in 1946, with earlier references made by M.D. Desai, Muni Kantisager, and B.L. Natha.

Chemical Processes Detailed in Dravya Pariksha:

• Coinage and Metal Purification: The book contains 149 gathas (verses) describing the production and purification of coinage metals and the composition of various coins used in 13th-14th century India. It utilizes many technical terms, some of which are difficult to fully decipher without context.
• Extraction of Silver:
  • Silver was extracted from soils using ashes from burned bones, trees, and cow dung. These ashes were mixed with silver ore and heated under a blowpipe on coals.
  • The impure product was further purified through cupellation, a method similar to that described by Nagarjuna in the 7th century AD and akin to modern amalgamation and cupellation processes.
  • Lead was desilverized by liquation and crystallization. The resulting lead contained about 2% silver, which could not be removed due to eutectic formation.
  • Impure silver was also purified using lead in various proportions, heated in crucibles or cupels. Impurities were absorbed by the crucible material or volatilized.
  • Pure silver could be made into rods, ingots, or foils. Different qualities of silver were achieved by mixing it with copper and brass in varying amounts.
  • Crucible material containing silver could be further desilverized by fusing it with borax and sajji (soda).
• Extraction of Gold:
  • Gold was found in river sands, mountains, or mines.
  • The ore was mixed with white chalk (calcium carbonate), salt (sodium chloride), and kallar (a mixture of sodium carbonate and sulfate) and heated strongly multiple times.
  • Gold ore could also be treated with the above mixture and "kommans powder" (likely containing lead, copper, and tin) to obtain gold with a small copper content.
  • The quality of gold was assessed by its gold content, with non-gold material being a mixture of silver, copper, and brass.
  • A formula for good gold material involved a fused mixture of 23 parts copper and 77 parts gold. The book also included methods for calculating the cost of gold.
• Extraction of Copper:
  • Copper ore was ground, mixed with cow dung, and dried.
  • It was then heated strongly in a furnace with strong blasts until slag formed.
  • After slag removal, the copper was purified by further heating with blasts.
  • Pure copper was converted into sheets or ingots. (The author notes that modern practices use coke instead of cow dung as a reducing agent).
• Extraction of Lead:
  • Lead ore was ground and mixed with iron in a 2:3 ratio and heated strongly in crucibles and furnaces.
  • Iron likely served to remove sulfur from sulfidic ores and reduce oxidized ores.
  • The slag from any extraction was considered to have half the value of the metal.
• Extraction of Mercury:
  • Mercury ore was placed in a closed furnace and covered with dried cow dung cakes.
  • Heating with slow blasts caused mercury to sublimate and collect at the top of the furnace.

Preparation of Alloys:

• Brass: Made by fusing one part copper with a mixture of four parts "Dhavadia" and two parts jaggery. "Dhavadia" likely contained zinc compounds, reduced by jaggery.
• Bronze: A mixture of copper and tin in varying proportions, made by boiling one part tin (obtained from solder metal) with four parts copper.
• Solder: Prepared by heating an ore with "kommans powder," producing a hot-flowing liquid metal called "Cambia," used for making bronze.

Preparation of Compounds:

• Hingul (Cinnabar): Prepared by heating sulfur and mercury in a 1:4 ratio. It also mentions preparation by heating realgar and orpiment powder for three days, suggesting mercury might have been present, forming hingul after arsenic elimination.
• Sindura (Red Lead): Prepared in two stages. First, lead metal was fused with 5% bamboo ash, making it "perchance insoluble." The mass was dissolved in water, filtered hot, allowed to settle, decanted, ground, and heated strongly for up to three days, changing its color to deep red. Overheating converted it back to lead.

Other Useful Descriptions:

• Units of Weight: The book details units like yava, masha, vanni, tanka, and tola, establishing a yava as equivalent to 0.057 grams.
• Coins: It describes various types of coins in use, their composition, and values. Table II (mentioned but not provided in full) lists classes of coins including silver, gold, alloys of three and two metals, and special coins.
• Other Materials: Descriptions of materials like shankh, rudraksha, shaligram, chandan, kasturi, kumkuma, dhupa, camphor, and aguru, including their natural sources and general physical properties.

Conclusion:

Despite its modest size, Thakkur Pheru's Dravyapariksa and Dhatutpattih offer substantial insights into the metallurgical practices and chemical knowledge of his era. The author suggests that this period might be considered an "age of recession" for chemistry in India, but Pheru's work demonstrates continued practical advancements. The article concludes by expressing hope that future historians of Indian science will incorporate references to Pheru's book.