Mathura Ka Prachin Jain Shilpa

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Mathura ka Prachin Jain Shilpa" by Ganeshprasad Jain, based on the provided pages:

The book, "Mathura ka Prachin Jain Shilpa," by Ganeshprasad Jain, highlights Mathura's pivotal and leading role as a center of Jain religion and art from the 7th century BCE to the 11th century CE. Numerous Jain artifacts, including Tirthankara idols, auspicious symbols on Ayagapattas, pillars adorned with deities and celestial beings, stupas, and decorative pillars with beautiful Shalbhanjikas, have been discovered at Kankali Tila and surrounding areas. These findings strongly suggest that the craftsmanship of Mathura's artisans was superior to that of other sites, and they reflect the deep devotion of the populace towards Jainism during that era.

The archaeological evidence of Jain art from Mathura spans from the 2nd century BCE to the 11th century CE, with the possibility of even older finds through further research. Based on inscriptions from Kankali Tila, Dr. Bühler's research suggests a large Jain palace or temple existed there before the 2nd century CE, with another constructed approximately a century later. During the Shunga period, such places of worship were referred to as "Prasada."

Mathura stands out as one of the ancient Indian cities whose Jain heritage can be traced back to prehistoric times. Its connections extended beyond India to Iran, Greece, and Central Asia, influencing its architecture, sculpture, and daily life with these foreign cultures.

Excavations at Kankali Tila, conducted by various prominent archaeologists like General Sir Alexander Cunningham and Dr. Führe, have yielded a wealth of Jain artifacts, including a stupa, 110 inscriptions, and numerous Tirthankara idols and other significant materials. The retrieved artifacts are housed in the Archaeological Museums of Lucknow and Allahabad.

The text also mentions a recent "Jain Art Exhibition" organized by the Uttar Pradesh State Museum in Lucknow, which showcased 78 Jain art objects across three sections. These included a Jinamastaka from the 1st-2nd century CE, images of Jain deities, narrative panels, stone sculptures, metal idols, paintings, and manuscripts, dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 19th century CE. Such exhibitions are deemed valuable for generating public curiosity and fostering religious devotion.

Jain art has flourished across various mediums like stone, metal, palm leaves, and paper, with its origins possibly extending back to the Indus Valley Civilization. However, a verifiable continuous lineage of Jain art is available from the Maurya period onwards. Jain artists created symbolic representations like Ayagapattas, Chaitya pillars, Chaitya trees, stupas, and auspicious symbols, evolving to intricate sculptures of standing and seated Tirthankaras, Sarvatobhadrika (four-faced) images, and deities like Saraswati, Ambika, Chakreshwari, Negamesha, Balabhadra, and Kshetrapala. This vast field of Jain art is a treasure trove in stone, metal, and architecture, with ongoing discoveries.

The earliest known stone sculpture of a Tirthankara is from Lohaniipur in Bihar, considered a pioneering work in stone art, with the tradition continuing to the present day. Mathura emerged as a significant sculptural center by the 6th-7th century CE, housing a large Jain stupa known as the "Baudh-Stupa," which contained numerous Jain Tirthankara and deity sculptures, primarily attributed to the Kushan period, though some appear older.

Jain sculptures from this period are often depicted in Achala (nude) posture, either standing (Kayotsarga) or seated in Padmasana. The presence of the Shrivatsa symbol on the chest is a characteristic, and the flowing hair is typically seen only on sculptures of Shri Adinath (Rishabhnath). Until the Kushan period, Tirthankara sculptures did not feature their distinctive emblems (Lanchhana). These emblems, such as the bull for Rishabhadeva, lotus for Padmaprabhu, serpent for Parshvanath, and lion for Mahavir, began to be used later. Sarvatobhadrika images typically depict Rishabhadeva, Neminath, Parshvanath, and Mahavir.

The text also discusses the development of "Shasana Devatas" (attendant deities), which were not present in sculptures until later periods. Early sculptures feature the Dharma Chakra on the pedestal and inscriptions detailing the idol's consecration, date, donor's name, and lineage of gurus. By the medieval period, Shasana Devatas and other motifs like three umbrellas, celestial musicians, and abhishek ceremonies became common. Sculptures depicting all twenty-four Tirthankaras are known as "Sampurna-murti" or "Chaturvimsatika" (Choubeesee). Jain sculptures are abundant in North and West India, also found in South India, but less so in East India.

A significant portion of the text is dedicated to the story of Bahubali, son of the first Tirthankara Rishabhadeva. It recounts the conflict between Bahubali and his elder brother Bharata, leading to Bahubali's renunciation and subsequent statue. The 57-foot-tall Gomateshwara statue in Shravanabelagola, erected by Virar Chamuṇḍarāya, is described as a marvel of art and a significant pilgrimage site. The origin of the name Shravanabelagola is explained as a Kannada term meaning "White Pond of Jain Monks." Inscriptions at Shravanabelagola date back to 300 BCE, mentioning connections to Emperor Chandragupta and providing extensive information about Jain followers, traditions, and dynasties in South India. The name Gommateshwara derives from Bahubali's epithet "Manmatha" (Cupid), as "Gomatta" in Kannada refers to Kamadeva.

Regarding metal sculptures, the oldest identified is a statue of the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanath, from Chausa in Bihar, dating around the 1st century BCE. Other metal sculptures belong to the Kushan, Gupta, and post-Gupta periods. Numerous Jain idols are found in various locations across West and South India, made of brass and copper, and some of gold, silver, and precious stones. Inscriptions are usually found on the back of these idols.

Architecture in Jainism is represented by ancient cave structures from the Maurya period in Bihar (Son Bhandar, Nagarjuni, Barabar hills) and Odisha (Khandagiri, Udayagiri). Mathura's "Devanirmit Baud-Stupa" is a testament to the Kushan period's grandeur. Gupta-era architectural samples are scarce, but medieval temples in Osianji, Abu, Khajuraho, and Sonagiri stand as significant examples.

Jain painting also begins around the 1st century BCE, with examples found in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves of Odisha. The Sittanavasal caves in Tamil Nadu showcase post-Gupta period paintings (600-625 CE), and the Kailasa Temple at Ellora has murals from the 8th to 13th centuries. Miniature painting flourished in Western India during the medieval period, with the earliest dated palm-leaf manuscript paintings being from the Nishiith-Churni (1100 CE). Painted manuscripts like Mahapurana, Kalpasutra, and Uttaradhyayana are also mentioned. Paintings are also found on wooden panels, cloth, and invitation letters, with red backgrounds and limited colors being typical in medieval Jain art, later incorporating gold under Mughal influence.

The period of early sculpture indicates that the creation of Jain Tirthankara idols commenced from the 2nd century BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela (circa 165 BCE) mentions "Devayatan Sanskar" and "Jin-Sannivesh." While definitive dating of some idols from Kankali Tila is challenging, fragments of gateways and borders clearly belong to the Shunga period. Mathura's artisans established a tradition of Tirthankara sculptures that evolved over time, with three primary forms: standing (Khadgasana), seated (Padmasana), and four-faced (Sarvatobhadra). Early sculptures lacked turbans and often the Shrivatsa symbol, with emblems becoming prominent from the 7th century CE. The identity of Tirthankaras was primarily determined by inscriptions on their pedestals. Some Rishabhadeva sculptures depict him with hair reaching his shoulders. Statues of Suparshvanath (7th Tirthankara) and Parshvanath (23rd Tirthankara) feature serpent-hood canopies.

Kayotsarga (standing) postures are associated with Digambara depiction, with hands in a "lata-hast" mudra. Padmasana postures have hands placed one above the other in the lap, resembling a blooming lotus, with the head, neck, eyes, and upper torso in a meditative pose. Sarvatobhadra images can be in either standing or seated postures, depicting four Tirthankaras in the cardinal directions, carved from a single stone or cast in metal. These typically feature Rishabhadeva, Neminath, Parshvanath, and Mahavir, with inscriptions on their pedestals depicting the worship of Dharma Chakra and stupas, often with devotees.

From an artistic perspective, Jain Tirthankara sculptures exhibit serene stability and upward movement, exuding an inward focus. These meditative and peaceful figures convey the transient nature of life. However, the same artisans, when creating decorative elements like gateways and railing pillars, infused them with life and profound artistic expression, as seen in the captivating Ayagapattas.

The architectural and sculptural prowess of Mathura extended far and wide. Workshops were busy creating large "Paramkha" type sculptures, perfectly balanced and abundant during the Shunga era. The Kushan period saw the creation of colossal Bodhisattvas, Buddhas, and Yakshas and Yakshinis. Sculptures made from Mathura's red sandstone have been found at various sites like Sanchi, Sarnath, Kausambi, Shravasti, Punjab, and Rajasthan. The golden age of Mathura's artistic splendor was during the reign of Kushan emperors Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasudeva, when art reached its zenith. Mathura artisans not only adopted but also developed the intricate techniques of Bharhut and Sanchi. They achieved remarkable skill in capturing both external form and internal emotions, creating art that was truly "Lalit Kala" (fine art). They incorporated natural elements like trees, flowers, and animals with renewed life and depicted scenes of human joy, nature, and aquatic sports with great freedom.

It is stated with certainty that sculpture has been a legacy of the Jains since antiquity, predating Buddhism. No Buddha image from before the Kushan period has been found. Early Buddhist art at Sanchi and Bharhut did not feature Buddha images but rather symbols like the elephant (birth), Bodhi tree (enlightenment), Dharma Chakra (first sermon), and stupa (nirvana).

Among the massive sculptures found in India, only ten Yaksha statues have been discovered, with the majority from Mathura, including the Paramkha Yaksha. Other significant Yaksha and Yakshini figures were also found in Mathura. A Saraswati idol found by Dr. Burgess at Kankali Tila, installed by a blacksmith, is considered the oldest known Saraswati idol. The text highlights the significant religious and spiritual recognition of Saraswati and Lakshmi in Jainism.

Another notable idol is that of Devi Aryavati, installed during the reign of Kshatrapa Shodasa (Saka year 42), possibly representing Mahavir's mother, Trishala Devi, indicated by her regal bearing and attendant female figures.

An inscription on the pedestal of a statue of Arhant Aranatha (18th Tirthankara) mentions a Shravika donating an Arhat statue in a "Devanirmit Stupa" under the inspiration of Acharya Vriddhahasti. This inscription dates to Saka year 86 (167 CE). Kushan-era sculptures feature numerous inscriptions in Brahmi script, with a mixed Sanskrit-Prakrit language, providing valuable information about Jainism. Sculptures from Kankali Tila in Mathura and Lucknow museums date from Saka years 5 to 95, with later installations extending to the 11th century. Gupta-period Padmasana sculptures are considered artistically superior.

Various railing pillars are adorned with depictions of women in joyful states, engaged in activities like flower picking, ball games, bathing, grooming, and playing musical instruments, showcasing the vibrant secular life of the time. Devotees bringing garlands and celestial beings like Suparnas and Kinnaras are also depicted participating in worship.

Mathura's Jain Ayagapattas are particularly significant, often featuring a Tirthankara idol in the center surrounded by decorative elements such as swastikas, Nandavartas, Shrivatsas, eight auspicious objects, and depictions of celestial maidens dancing. Some Ayagapattas show gateways and railings with artistic creations and inscriptions dating from around 100 BCE to the mid-1st century CE. These artifacts provide insights into the clothing, entertainment, and social life of different eras.

These Ayagapattas or Puja-Silapattas were installed on raised platforms in stupa courtyards for veneration. Several high-art Jain Ayagapattas from Mathura are preserved in the Lucknow Museum, featuring auspicious symbols, flagpoles, and pillar motifs. One Ayagapatta depicts a large central swastika with a small Tirthankara image, surrounded by a circle adorned with sixteen celestial maidens. Another features the "Shodasa-Dharma-Chakra" surrounded by three concentric circles with Nandipadas, Dik-kumāris, and floral garlands.

The Vedikas (railings) were an integral part of architectural design, incorporating various sculptural elements like pillars, crossbars, and decorative panels, often depicting stupas. The Shalbhanjika figures on the railing pillars are similar to those found at Buddhist stupas. The intricately designed railing pillars of Mathura art are considered unparalleled. During the Shunga period, stupas were covered with stone slabs and encircled by grand railings with four torana gateways. One railing, potentially the "Padmavar Vedika" mentioned in the Rayapaseniya Sutta, might have been adorned with real lotus flowers, later stylized on wooden and stone pillars.

The sculptures on railing pillars depict men, women, animals, birds, and plants, reflecting the joyous life of the era. Depictions of women are particularly prevalent, engaged in various activities like picking flowers, playing ball games, bathing, dressing, grooming their hair, applying cosmetics, and playing the veena. The portrayal of women in dancing poses, along with depictions of nature, brings vibrancy to the art.

Inscriptions from Mathura provide valuable information about the Jain Sangha's organization, including various ganas, kulas, and branches, validating the historical accounts in the Kalpasutra. Four of the eight Jain ganas are mentioned in Mathura inscriptions. The prevalence of various kula and branches indicates Mathura as a lively center of the Jain monastic order, with lay followers actively practicing the faith.

The text notes a predominance of female donors among the inscriptions. Apart from Mathura, other significant Jain centers in North India include Kausambi, Prabhas, Shravasti, Kampila, Ahikshethra, Hastinapur, Devgarh, Rajgir, Vaishali, and Mandargiri. Jain art also flourished in Central India (Gwalior, Chanderi, Sonagiri, Khajuraho, Ajaygarh, Kundalpur, Jarkho, Ahaar, Ramtek), Rajasthan and Malwa (Chandrakhedi, Abu, Siddhervakoot, Ujjain), Gujarat, Saurashtra, and Bombay (Girnar, Valabhi, Shatrunjaya, Anhilwal, Dilwara, Ellora, Badami), and South India (Belur, Shravanabelagola, Halebid). Various dynasties, including the Guptas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Kalachuris, Gangas, Kadambas, Cholas, and Pandyas, patronized Jain art. Notable patrons include Siddharaj Jaysingh, Kumarpal, Amoghavarsha, and Mankala.

The decline of Indian art and the destruction of art centers also affected Jain art after the medieval period. While the flow of art in North India was disrupted, architecture and sculpture survived in West and South India, albeit with a diminished liveliness. Numerous Jain stone and metal sculptures from the 13th to 18th centuries bear inscriptions with Vikram Samvat dates, donors' names, gotras, and kulas. Scattered Jain art remnants are found in many ancient sites in North India, such as the Parsvanath fort in Bijnor district, and in Bundelkhand and Rajasthan, where numerous idols are found unattended. The collection and preservation of these valuable art treasures are deemed essential.

The current Mathura, a significant Jain pilgrimage center, is known for Chaurasi, the Nirvana land of the last Kevali, Jambu-swami. The text elaborates on the lineage of Kevalis after Mahavir. Jambu-swami attained Nirvana 2437 years ago at Chaurasi, which was then known for its numerous forests. The site, currently known as Chaurasi, has two ancient and highly venerated Tirthankara statues: a 2000-year-old statue of the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanath, and a large standing statue of the 2nd Tirthankara, Ajitnath, discovered in Gwalior. These sites are considered "Atishay-kshetra" due to the miraculous nature of these idols. Mathura's ancient contribution to Jainism and art suggests that further excavations may uncover more artifacts pushing back the timeline of Jainism's existence in the region. The establishment of a large Jain research institute is proposed to collect and preserve scattered Jain heritage.