Manav Bhojya Mimansa

This is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Manav Bhojya Mimansa" (मानव भोज्य-मीमांसा) by Kalyanvijay Gani, published by K V Shastra Sangrah Samiti Jalor in 1961. The book critically examines human diet from Jain, Vedic, and scientific perspectives, advocating for a vegetarian (Niramish) diet.

Here's a chapter-wise summary:

Introduction (प्रकाशकीय-निवेदन & भूमिका):

• The book is presented as a significant work following the author's previous publications.
• It highlights the public's demand for the complete publication of the book after the release of its third chapter.
• The publication was financially supported by the Otwala Jain Sangh.
• The author addresses a controversy surrounding a book titled "Bhagwan Buddha," which allegedly accused Tirthankar Mahavir and other Rishis of meat consumption. This controversy sparked widespread opposition from Jain and Sanatan Dharma followers, prompting the author to delve into this research.
• The book aims to provide a detailed analysis and clarification of the terms related to food, especially "meat" (मांस) and its synonyms, as used in ancient Jain and Vedic texts, to dispel misconceptions and uphold the principles of non-violence and vegetarianism.

Chapter 1: Human Natural Food (प्रथम अध्याय: मानव प्राकृतिक भोजन):

• Natural Diet: Argues that humans have always been and should remain vegetarian (Niramish bhoji). It draws upon Jain scriptures, Vedic principles, and scientific findings to support this.
• Vedic Yajnas: Discusses Vedic sacrifices, stating that early Vedic rituals (Rigvedic era) were not violent. However, with the loss of the Vedic Nighantu (lexicon), interpretations became distorted, leading to the misinterpretation of plant names as animal names and the introduction of animal sacrifice in later Vedic and Brahmanic texts (like Yajurveda Madhyandin Sanhita and Shatapatha Brahmana). It highlights that with the rediscovery of the Vedic Nighantu by Acharya Yaska, the practice of animal sacrifice diminished, becoming restricted to specific rituals like Astaka Shraddha and Madhuparka, and eventually disappearing by the Puranic age, replaced by vegetarian offerings.
• Jain Scriptures: Explains the use of terms like "Mans" (मांस), "Matsya" (मत्स्य), "Pudgal" (पुद्गल), "Amish" (आमिष), and "Praneet Aahar" (प्रणीत आहार) in Jain texts like Acharanga, Bhagavati, Nishitha Adhyayan, etc. It clarifies that in ancient times, these terms referred to desirable food items, including plant-based ones, but over time, with the increase in meat consumption, these terms came to exclusively denote animal flesh.
• Jain Ascetics (Nirgranth Shramans): Details the lifestyle, diet, discipline, austerity, and non-violent practices of Jain monks, emphasizing their vegetarianism.
• Vedic Ascetics (Parivrajaka): Discusses the life and practices of Vedic wandering ascetics, highlighting their non-violent and vegetarian nature, and briefly touching upon the duties of Brahmacharya, Grihastha, and Vanaprastha ashrams.
• Buddhist Monks (Shakya Bhikshu): Outlines the lifestyle of Buddhist monks based on Buddhist scriptures, noting their initial simple and beneficial way of life. It mentions that while Buddha did not impose strict prohibitions on meat or fish consumption, most monks refrained from it. However, it points out that with the spread of Buddhism, particularly in China, meat consumption became more prevalent, leading to a decline in its popularity in India.

Chapter 2: Ancient Vedic Yajnas (द्वितीय अध्याय: प्राच्य वेदकालीन यज्ञ):

• This chapter likely elaborates on the rituals and deities mentioned in the Rigveda, explaining the nature of early Vedic sacrifices and the offerings made to the gods, emphasizing their non-violent, grain-based nature. It will likely discuss the interpretation of terms and the evolution of rituals.

Chapter 3: Clarification of the Term "Meat" (तृतीय अध्याय: मांसनामार्थनिर्णय):

• Origin and History of "Meat": Traces the evolution of the word "मांस" (Mans) from meaning the internal essence of any substance to denoting parts of living beings and plant-based fruits.
• Animal Flesh "Mans": Discusses how "मांस" (Mans) came to specifically refer to animal flesh, initially practiced by uncivilized groups and later adopted by Kshatriyas due to external influences. However, it asserts that Arya communities never widely accepted meat as a staple food.
• Synonyms for Meat: Analyzes various synonyms for meat like "पिशित" (Pishit), "क्रविष्" (Kravish), "आमिष" (Amish), "पलल" (Palal), etc., examining their etymology and original meanings from ancient texts and dictionaries like Amar Kosh and Kalpadrum Kosh. It highlights how these terms, originally having broader meanings, became associated with animal flesh over time.
• Vegetable Parts as "Meat": Explains how various parts of plants like fruits, roots, stems, and seeds were metaphorically or descriptively referred to using terms similar to animal body parts (e.g., "मांस" for fruit pulp, "अस्थि" for seeds/kernels, "रस" for sap). This demonstrates how linguistic parallels might have contributed to confusion.
• Word Meanings and Their Evolution: Discusses how word meanings change over time, citing examples of words like "कपोत," "मृग," "असुर," "प्रवीण," "उदार," and "निस्त्रिंश" to show how their original meanings broadened or shifted. This is crucial for understanding the context of terms like "मांस" in ancient texts.
• Vedic Evidence for Grains: Cites specific verses from Rigveda, Krishna Yajurveda (Taittiriya Sanhita), Shukla Yajurveda (Vajasaneyi Sanhita), and Brahmanas (Sadvimsha Brahmana, Gopatha Brahmana) that mention grains like "यव" (barley), "ब्रीहि" (rice), "माष" (lentils), and "तिल" (sesame), presenting them as primary food sources and offerings in Vedic rituals.
• Arguments Against Cow Slaughter: Refutes the notion that Vedic Brahmins regularly consumed beef, citing the concept of "अमेध्य" (unfit for sacrifice) animals and the arguments for cow protection in texts like Vasistha Smriti. It critiques interpretations that claim cow slaughter was common, particularly by analyzing the statements of Acharya Yaska and Yaajnavalkya.
• Madhuparka: Explains the ritual of "Madhuparka" (offering of honey and other edibles), discussing its evolving nature and the debate surrounding the inclusion of meat in it. It highlights that while early texts might mention it, later interpretations and practices increasingly favored vegetarian alternatives.
• "Utkranta Medha Pashu": Discusses the concept of "Utkranta Medha Pashu" from Aitareya Brahmana and Shatapatha Brahmana, explaining it as a symbolic representation of transferring the "essence" of sacrifice from one form to another, ultimately leading to grains, rather than literal animal sacrifice for consumption.
• Decline of Animal Sacrifice: Details the reasons for the gradual decline of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals, attributing it to the changing sentiments of the people, the influence of Jain and Buddhist teachings of Ahimsa, and the shift in royal patronage towards more peaceful practices.

Chapter 4: Jain Ascetics as Vegetarian Eaters (चतुर्थ अध्याय: प्रासुक भोजी जैन श्रमण):

• Life of a Jain Ascetic: Describes the rigorous discipline and qualifications required for becoming a Jain monk, including age, physical and mental fitness, and freedom from debts or servitude.
• Initiation and Vows: Explains the process of initiation, the period of training, and the taking of vows like the five Mahavratas (non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, non-possession) and the prohibition of night food.
• General Conduct (Samayika Charitra): Details the daily routine and code of conduct for Jain monks, including their adherence to various practices like "Swadhayaya" (study), "Dhyana" (meditation), "Pratikraman" (repentance ceremonies), and the strict rules regarding food, water, and dwelling.
• Equipment (Upadhi): Lists the limited possessions permitted to Jain monks, such as the "rajoharana" (broom to avoid harming small insects), "mukhavastrika" (mouth covering), "cholapattaka" (loincloth), and minimal clothing and vessels, emphasizing their principle of non-possession (aparigraha).
• Tapas (Austerities): Explains the various forms of severe austerities undertaken by Jain ascetics, including different types of fasting, prolonged postures, and self-mortification, all aimed at spiritual purification and liberation from karma.
• Bhiksha Charya (Alms Round): Describes the principles of alms rounds (madhukari vritti), emphasizing taking only what is necessary, avoiding specially prepared food, and refraining from taking food from certain households or at certain times. It highlights the strict rules about acceptable and unacceptable food and water.
• Water (Panaisha): Details the strict regulations regarding the collection and consumption of water, ensuring it is "prasuk" (purified, free from visible life) and obtained through proper channels without harming any life forms.
• Order and Administration: Explains the hierarchical structure within the Jain monastic community, with terms like "Kula" (family/group), "Gana" (larger association), "Ganadhara" (leader of a Gana), and "Sangha" (the entire community), demonstrating a well-organized administrative system.

Chapter 5: Unattached Vedic Ascetics (पंचम अध्याय: अनारम्भी वैदिक परिव्राजक):

• Ashrama System: Introduces the four Vedic ashramas (stages of life): Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest dweller/retiree), and Sanyasa (renunciation).
• Brahmachari: Describes the life of a Brahmachari, including their studies, discipline, and restrictions on diet and activities.
• Grihastha: Touches upon the duties of householders from Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya castes, emphasizing their roles in maintaining social order and performing religious duties.
• Vanaprastha and Sanyasa: Briefly discusses the lives of forest dwellers and renunciates, highlighting their detachment from worldly affairs and focus on spiritual practices.
• Asceticism and Renunciation: Explores the concept of Sanyasa in Vedic tradition, its antiquity, the qualifications for renunciation, and the different types of ascetics (Parivrajaka, Yati, Bhikshu) and their practices. It contrasts the lifestyle of early Vedic ascetics (recorded in Upanishads) with later developments.
• Ascetic Practices and Restrictions: Details the ascetic practices, permissible and forbidden foods, clothing, and conduct for various types of Vedic ascetics, including the strictness regarding meat, alcohol, and worldly attachments. It also discusses the controversy around white vs. saffron robes and the rationale behind it in relation to Jain and other traditions.
• Purity and Non-Violence: Emphasizes the importance of purity, non-violence, and detachment from worldly possessions and desires in the life of Vedic ascetics. It mentions the strict rules regarding avoiding harm to even the smallest life forms.
• Prajapati's Yajnas: References the Puranic account of Prajapati's attempts to achieve immortality through various sacrifices, illustrating the ultimate futility of ritualistic actions without inner transformation.
• Decline of Purity: Discusses how later Vedic texts and rituals saw an increase in animal sacrifice and the acceptance of meat, contrasting this with the earlier emphasis on vegetarianism and purity.
• Purity of Conduct: Highlights the importance of virtuous conduct, self-control, and spiritual knowledge for true spiritual progress, regardless of caste or external rituals.
• Exceptions and Prohibitions: Discusses exceptions made during times of scarcity or in specific rituals like Madhuparka and Shraddha, where limited meat consumption was sometimes permitted, but clarifies that this was not the norm. It also lists various prohibitions regarding food, conduct, and possessions for ascetics.

Chapter 6: The Food-Habits of Shakya Bhikshus (Buddhist Monks) (षष्ठ अध्याय: उद्दिष्टकृतभोजी शाक्य भिक्षु):

• Life of Buddha and Buddhism: Provides an overview of the life of Gautama Buddha and the early history of Buddhism, highlighting Buddha's initial ascetic practices and his eventual adoption of the "Middle Path."
• Ascetic Practices of Buddha: Details Buddha's extreme austerities, drawing parallels with Jain asceticism and noting that his initial harsh practices were later abandoned for a more moderate approach focusing on mental and spiritual purification.
• Buddhism's Evolution: Discusses the organizational aspects of the Buddhist Sangha, the ordination of monks and nuns, the rules and regulations (Vinaya Pitaka), and the gradual changes and interpretations that occurred after Buddha's Nirvana, including the controversial introduction of certain relaxations in dietary rules.
• "Sukara Maddava" Controversy: Critically analyzes the incident of Buddha's final meal, "Sukara Maddava," and the differing interpretations of this term among scholars and commentators. The author argues against the literal interpretation of it being boar meat, suggesting it was likely a special preparation of a plant-based food, possibly "Sukara Kanda" (a type of yam), prepared with ghee, which proved indigestible for the ailing Buddha.
• Ahimsa in Buddhism: Explains the emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) in Buddhist teachings, citing various discourses and verses from texts like Dhammapada, Sutta Nipata, and Sutta Nipata that advocate for compassion and abstaining from harming any living being.
• "Amagandha" and "Uddishtakrita": Discusses Buddhist concepts like "Amagandha" (impure food/conduct) and "Uddishtakrita" (food specifically prepared for monks), and the Jain perspective on these, highlighting the differences in interpretation and practice between Jain and Buddhist ascetics.
• Praise of Dana (Charity): Presents Buddhist scriptures that praise the act of giving to the Sangha, detailing the immense benefits derived from such donations, often using exaggerated claims of celestial rewards.
• Controversies and Interpretations: Critiques the historical accounts and interpretations of Buddhism found in certain Buddhist texts, pointing out potential exaggerations, contradictions, and the historical evolution of practices and beliefs within Buddhism, particularly regarding diet and monastic discipline. It also touches upon the spread of Buddhism outside India and its impact on its original tenets.
• Decline of Buddhism in India: Explains the reasons for the decline of Buddhism in India, attributing it to the loss of its original strict discipline, the influence of internal schisms, the appropriation of its monastic wealth by rulers, and the rise of Vedic and Jain traditions. The author specifically mentions the issue of meat consumption as a contributing factor to its decline among the Indian populace.
• Buddhism's Future: Reflects on whether modern Buddhism truly represents Buddha's original teachings, especially concerning dietary practices and strict adherence to the Vinaya.

Conclusion (उपसंहार & समाप्ति मंगल):

• Reiterates the author's belief that the natural and ideal human diet is vegetarian, supported by Jain, Vedic, and scientific evidence.
• The author expresses hope that this extensive analysis will clarify misconceptions and encourage readers to adopt a more compassionate and healthy lifestyle.
• The book concludes with auspicious verses honoring Lord Mahavir, Lord Gautam, and the teachings of the Tirthankaras, signifying the end of the text.

Overall Theme:

The central theme of "Manav Bhojya Mimansa" is the advocacy for a vegetarian diet based on principles of non-violence (Ahimsa), spiritual purity, and scientific reasoning. The author meticulously deconstructs the historical and linguistic nuances surrounding the terms related to food in ancient Indian traditions, demonstrating that vegetarianism was the original and intended human diet, and that deviations from this ideal were later developments, often driven by misinterpretations, external influences, or a decline in spiritual discipline. The book serves as a strong defense of Jain dietary principles and a critique of the historical introduction and acceptance of meat consumption in other Indian traditions.