Mahavira Vardhaman

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Mahavira Vardhaman" by Jagdishchandra Jain, based on the provided pages:

Book Title: Mahavira Vardhaman Author: Jagdishchandra Jain Publisher: Vishvavani Karyalaya, Allahabad

Overall Scope: This book provides a detailed and modern interpretation of the life and teachings of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. The author aims to present Mahavira's philosophy in a way that is relevant and applicable to contemporary society, while also being academically rigorous and drawing from both Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jain traditions. The book aims to counter traditional views and highlight the progressive and societal aspects of Mahavira's teachings.

Key Themes and Content:

• Introduction and Fair Use Declaration: The initial pages include a "Fair Use Declaration" by The Free Indological Collection, explaining their mission to make scholarly works accessible for educational and research purposes, and a note about copyright responsibility.
• Author's Dedication: The author dedicates the book to his elder brother, acknowledging his significant contribution to his education.
• "Grana Ke Baare Mein" (About the Book) by Anand Kosalyayan: This section praises the book, highlighting its significance for Hindi literature. It notes the scarcity of materials on Mahavira compared to Buddha. The author commends Jagdishchandra Jain for extensively referencing both Buddhist and Jain scriptures to create a comprehensive and historically accurate account. It emphasizes the book's unique modern perspective on Mahavira's life and teachings, which might challenge traditional viewpoints but is expected to be well-received by contemporary Hindi readers.
• "Prastavik Nivedan" (Preface) by Jagdishchandra Jain:
  • Motivation: The author was inspired to write this book after returning from jail during the 1942 August movement.
  • Research and Challenges: He acknowledges the difficulty in finding sufficient material on Mahavira compared to Buddha, attributing it partly to the famine in Pataliputra during Chandragupta Maurya's time, which led to the loss of much Jain literature. He notes the scarcity of Mahavira's life-related material in Digambara texts and its limited presence in ancient Śvetāmbara texts like Acārāṅga.
  • Methodology: The book uses both Śvetāmbara and Digambara texts impartially and aims to be useful for both sects. Miraculous events of Mahavira's life are generally omitted.
  • Societal Relevance: The author refutes the idea that Mahavira's religion was purely individualistic. He points to Mahavira's establishment of a Sangha and his disciples being sent for religious propagation across regions, citing the Brihatkalpa Sutra. He argues that Mahavira's teachings, though from a different era, are relevant to solving modern societal problems.
  • Acknowledgements: He expresses gratitude to numerous friends and scholars who reviewed the manuscript, including Dr. Narayan Vishnu Joshi, Pandit Nathuram Premi, Pandit Sukhlal Ji, Dr. Motichand Ji, Sahu Shreyansprasad Ji Jain, and his wife Sou. Kamlshri Jain. He also thanks Bhadanta Anand Kosalyayan for his foreword and the manager of Law Journal Press.
• Table of Contents: The book is structured into chapters covering:
  1. Birth of Mahavira Vardhaman
  2. Contemporary Circumstances and Mahavira's Initiation
  3. After Initiation - Severe Ordeals
  4. The Precept of Ahimsa (Non-violence)
  5. The Importance of Restraint, Austerity, and Renunciation
  6. Equality - Opposition to Caste by Birth
  7. The High Status of Women
  8. God - Negation of Causation - The Importance of Self-Effort
  9. Mahavira's Religion - Primacy of Self-Control
  10. Anekāntavāda (Non-absolutism/Manysidedness)
  11. The Plan of the Fourfold Sangha - The Sufferings and Renunciation of Monks
  12. The Broad Scope of Ahimsa - The Criterion of World Welfare
  13. Jainism - A People's Religion (Lokadharma)
  14. Comparison of Mahavira and Buddha
  15. Mahavira's Nirvana and After
  16. Conclusion
  • Mahavira Vachanāmṛta (Nectar of Mahavira's Sayings): A collection of quotes attributed to Mahavira.

Detailed Chapter Summaries (based on the provided text):

1. Birth of Mahavira Vardhaman:

   • Describes Vaishali, the capital of Videha, as a significant city and the primary center of the Vajji (Licchavi) confederacy, a republic.
   • Highlights the strong organizational skills and unity of the Licchavis, as noted by the Buddha regarding their resilience against Ajatashatru.
   • Mentions Chetaka, a powerful ruler of Vaishali, his daughters' marriages to prominent kings, and his sister Trishala's marriage to Siddhartha.
   • Notes Mahavira's birth into the Jnatri clan in Kshatriya-Kundagrama.
   • Details the auspicious fourteen dreams of his mother Trishala, predicting the birth of a valorous son.
   • Describes the grand celebrations following his birth and the naming of the child Vardhaman (meaning "ever-increasing" or "prosperous") due to the prosperity that befell the kingdom.
   • Paints a picture of Vardhaman's childhood as brave, patient, and fearless, citing an incident where he fearlessly handled a serpent.
   • Mentions his intellectual prowess in his studies.
   • States that Mahavira lived as a householder for thirty years, enjoying worldly pleasures, though a Digambara view suggests he remained unmarried.

2. Contemporary Circumstances and Mahavira's Initiation:

   • Discusses the two ancient cultural streams in India: Brahmanical and Śramana.
   • Brahmanical: Adherence to Vedas, worship of Vedic deities (Indra, Varuna), animal sacrifice, belief in the superiority of the Brahminical caste, and the four āśramas (stages of life).
   • Śramana: Opposition to Brahmanical rituals, emphasis on renunciation, self-reflection, restraint, equanimity, austerity, charity, truthfulness, non-violence, and self-purification. It was considered a Kshatriya vidya.
   • Highlights Upanishadic ideas of renouncing worldly desires for spiritual pursuit.
   • Mentions the influence of Śramana thought on the Mahabharata, which emphasizes austerity and the negation of violent rituals in favor of spiritual sacrifices.
   • Notes figures like Yājñavalkya, Janaka, and Pārśvanātha who emerged from the Śramana tradition.
   • Mahavira critically examined these traditions and found prevalent rituals, blind faith, and severe discrimination, particularly against women and Shudras, who were denied access to Vedic knowledge.
   • Seeing the pervasive suffering caused by violence and the pursuit of sensual pleasures, Mahavira was moved to dedicate himself to the welfare of the world and achieve inner strength.
   • He renounced his worldly possessions (fine clothes, ornaments, food, wealth, family) and, with permission from his relatives, underwent initiation as a Śramana by tonsuring his hair in an āśrama outside Kundagrama. He resolved to face all hardships with patience and steadfastness.

3. After Initiation - Severe Ordeals:

   • Describes Mahavira's post-initiation journey to alleviate the world's suffering, facing extreme hardships like a warrior.
   • Children would mock him, throw stones, and curse him, but he bore it all with equanimity. He often remained silent, indifferent to praise or blame.
   • He practiced severe asceticism, renouncing cold water, consuming only pure food, and not using external garments or vessels. He practiced intense self-control, even refraining from scratching himself or wiping away dirt.
   • He meditated in solitude in various places like empty houses, public spaces, outside villages, and under trees, practicing intense austerities for thirteen years. He slept very little, often waking to meditate or walk.
   • His dwelling places were often subject to various dangers like snakes, birds, thieves, villagers, and lustful individuals.
   • During severe winter, when others sought warmth, Mahavira endured the cold in open spaces, demonstrating immense fortitude.
   • He traveled extensively, facing immense suffering, particularly in the Laḍha region (modern Bengal), considered uncivilized and hostile to Śramana traditions. Locals would unleash dogs on him, and he endured beatings, imprisonment, and even near-executions, yet he caused no harm to any living being.
   • He accepted difficult conditions, like dwelling in huts that cows might feed on, and later resolved not to stay where his presence caused distress to others.
   • He endured the pain of having pegs hammered into his ears for speaking truthfully when questioned by a cowherd, showcasing his unwavering resolve.
   • When offered divine help, he refused, emphasizing self-reliance for welfare.
   • He practiced extreme austerity, abstaining from medical treatments, bathing, and even brushing teeth. He meditated facing the sun in summer and in the shade in winter, consuming rough food and undertaking prolonged fasts (sometimes for a month without water). He practiced careful foraging for alms, even avoiding birds or beggars on his path.
   • After twelve years of severe penance, he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience) under a Śāla tree by the Rujukalika river, realizing the path to world welfare.

4. The Precept of Ahimsa (Non-violence):

   • Mahavira's teachings on Ahimsa gained widespread recognition.
   • He stated that all living beings desire life and happiness and wish to avoid suffering. Therefore, causing harm to any creature is wrong.
   • He emphasized empathy, suggesting that understanding one's own pain allows one to understand others' pain.
   • He countered the exploitative principle of "live and let live" ("Jivo jivasya jivanam") by advocating for "Live and let live" ("Jiyo aur jine do") for the welfare of the world.
   • He criticized the violence in prevalent rituals (yajñas) and the spread of blind faith.
   • He taught that true Ahimsa lies in controlling desires, senses, and actions.
   • He extended Ahimsa to encompass the protection of all living beings, including plants, water, fire, and air, highlighting his universal concern.
   • Mahavira's Ahimsa was not merely individualistic but had a collective scope for world welfare.

5. The Importance of Restraint, Austerity, and Renunciation:

   • Mahavira declared restraint (Saṁyama), austerity (Tapa), and renunciation (Tyāga) as the highest virtues.
   • Saṁyama: Control over oneself, resisting temptations and the dominion of passions like attachment, anger, greed, and ego. He warned against being careless and advised maintaining vigilance.
   • Tapa: Not merely physical hardship, but action undertaken with knowledge. It involves controlling the body, senses, and mind to overcome passions.
   • Tyāga: True renunciation is voluntarily giving up desirable things, not just discarding what is unobtainable.
   • He used examples like the patience of Vaidehika (a wealthy merchant's wife) to illustrate true forbearance, emphasizing that true peace is maintained even when faced with criticism.
   • Mahavira's own asceticism was profound, aimed at self-purification and the welfare of others, not for worldly fame.
   • He stressed that inner purity is paramount, and outward signs like nudity are secondary.
   • The book discusses the debate about nudity versus wearing clothes in Jainism, with Gautam explaining to Keshikumara that true liberation comes from knowledge, perception, and conduct, not mere outward appearance.
   • The path of austerity and renunciation is presented as arduous but essential for achieving one's goals.

6. Equality - Opposition to Caste by Birth:

   • Mahavira emphasized equality as crucial for establishing Ahimsa. He asserted that notions of high and low, big and small, rich and poor, perpetuate violence.
   • He proclaimed all beings are equal and fostering distinctions leads to violent tendencies.
   • The book recounts a dialogue between Jayaghosh Muni and Vijayaghosh Brahmin, where Jayaghosh defines a true Brahmin by their character and control over passions, not by birth or ritualistic knowledge.
   • It states that true Śramana, Brahmin, Muni, and Tapasvi are defined by equanimity, celibacy, knowledge, and austerity respectively, not by outward appearances.
   • Humans are identified by their actions, not by birth caste.
   • The text criticizes pride (mada) stemming from knowledge, status, lineage, strength, wealth, austerity, and body, stating that disrespecting virtuous individuals is disrespecting Dharma itself.
   • It mentions the respect shown to a Chāṇḍāla (outcaste) with right faith, and the emphasis on virtue over birth by scholars like Raviṣeṇa.
   • The story of Harikesh, a Chāṇḍāla-born Jain monk, refusing to be denied alms by a caste-proud priest, highlights that true religious merit comes from inner purity and control of passions, not from birth or ritualistic violence.
   • It contrasts Mahavira's teachings with the Vedic concept of Varṇa, which originally signified division of labor but later became birth-based, leading to discrimination.
   • Mahavira welcomed people from all walks of life, including artisans, merchants, Mlecchas (foreigners), thieves, fishermen, prostitutes, and Chāṇḍālas, into his Sangha, making Jainism a "people's religion."
   • His teachings of Apariagraha (non-possession) encouraged limiting desires and sharing wealth for the welfare of others.
   • The story of the Bhil and Brahmin worshipping Shiva illustrates that sincere devotion and action are more valued than ritualistic pomp.
   • Mahavira's message was that one attains eminence through deeds, virtues, and hard work, not by birth.

7. The High Status of Women:

   • Mahavira was very liberal regarding women, in contrast to the often derogatory views of women prevalent in that era.
   • While Buddha initially hesitated to admit women into his Sangha, Mahavira gave them a significant place in his fourfold Sangha (monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen).
   • Hundreds of women are mentioned in Jain scriptures as having achieved self-welfare after listening to Mahavira.
   • Chandanbala is cited as Mahavira's first disciple and the head of his order of nuns.
   • Rajamati's renunciation and adherence to her spiritual path, even influencing Arishtanemi's brother, are highlighted as exemplary.
   • Jain texts consider a virtuous woman among the fourteen treasures of a Chakravarti king and emphasize protecting women in times of crisis.
   • The story of Chelnā, queen of Shrenik, where her innocent remark about a suffering ascetic is misinterpreted by her husband, leading to the renunciation of his minister Abhayakumar, underscores the importance of women's character and the folly of mistrust.
   • The author notes that although some Jain texts reflect contemporary societal prejudices against women (partly for the spiritual discipline of monks), Mahavira's elevation of women in his Sangha was a significant progressive step.
   • He compares this to Buddha's evolving appreciation for women's spiritual potential.
   • Mahavira and Buddha empowered women, recognizing their potential for spiritual achievement and societal contribution.

8. God - Negation of Causation - The Importance of Self-Effort:

   • Mahavira equated the highest state of self-development with "Ishvara" (God). He questioned the purpose of creation for an enlightened being.
   • He challenged the concept of a benevolent, omniscient God by pointing to injustice and suffering in the world.
   • He rejected the idea of God as the sole creator, as it could lead to fatalism and a lack of individual effort.
   • Mahavira's core message was empowering humans to realize their potential through self-effort, logic, and shedding blind faith, stating, "You can achieve anything you desire; you are the architect of your own destiny."
   • He echoed Buddha's advice to question teachings, test them through personal experience, and accept only what is beneficial.

9. Mahavira's Religion - Primacy of Self-Control:

   • Mahavira's simple message was to practice self-control, self-knowledge, and live a life of austerity and renunciation for the welfare of oneself and others.
   • His teachings were summarized by the "Pancha Pap-nivṛtti" (avoidance of five cardinal sins): non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.
   • He emphasized that spiritual progress is hindered by karmic impurities and worldly desires, which must be controlled through wisdom.
   • The "Sapta Tattva" (seven principles) represent the path to knowledge and welfare.
   • The fourteen stages of spiritual development (Gunasthānas) lead to ultimate liberation (Kevala).
   • His teachings focused on self-development, self-discipline, and self-conquest. True knowledge is understanding the path and realizing one's true self.

10. Anekāntavāda (Non-absolutism/Manysidedness):

    • Anekāntavāda is presented as a broader aspect of Ahimsa, involving understanding others' perspectives without being bound by one's own prejudices or desires.
    • It fosters the ability to grasp truth and reduces the tendency to see any single viewpoint as absolute.
    • The principle states that each perspective has truth within its context.
    • Holding onto one's own beliefs rigidly prevents understanding others and leads to a narrow worldview.
    • True Anekāntavāda does not hate any philosophy but maintains equanimity towards all, like a father towards his children.
    • It is the key to understanding scriptures and achieving mental purity.
    • Mahavira's emphasis on Ahimsa (austerity and renunciation) and Anekāntavāda (mental purity) formed the foundation of his Śramana Dharma.
    • He advocated for living a life of renunciation and non-violence rather than engaging in pointless debates, as truth is relative and perception is influenced by context.
    • Anekāntavāda frees individuals from stubbornness and bias, encouraging the integration of diverse viewpoints for collective welfare.

11. The Plan of the Fourfold Sangha - The Sufferings and Renunciation of Monks:

    • Mahavira established a fourfold Sangha (monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen) to propagate his teachings.
    • The text describes various ancient Indian associations, guilds, and communities, highlighting their organizational structures and social roles.
    • It details the lives of Jain and Buddhist monks and nuns, their monastic rules, their four-month rainy season retreats, and their extensive travels (Janapada Vihara).
    • It contrasts Mahavira's emphasis on strict self-discipline and vigilance with Buddha's Middle Path, noting that Mahavira's followers focused more on outward conduct and control, while Buddha emphasized inner purity.
    • The book vividly portrays the hardships faced by monks and nuns in ancient times: long journeys without modern transport, dangerous forests, treacherous terrain, threats from robbers, political instability, persecution by rulers hostile to Jainism, and the struggles of living in monasteries (upasrayas) with various nuisments and dangers.
    • It mentions the challenges of famine, the loss of Jain scriptures during the Pataliputra famine, and the need for monks to adopt unconventional methods for alms.
    • The difficulties faced by nuns were even greater.
    • Despite these hardships, monks and nuns displayed immense sacrifice and dedication, often surviving on meager food and prioritizing the welfare of the Sangha.
    • The text highlights the Jain monks' practice of accepting alms only from specific social strata, showing their commitment to engaging with and serving the common people.

12. The Broad Scope of Ahimsa - The Criterion of World Welfare:

    • The chapter delves deeper into the concept of Ahimsa, explaining that mere cessation of life-taking is not the sole definition.
    • It discusses the unavoidable "initiation violence" (ārambhī hiṁsā) in daily life and the necessary "protective violence" (virodhī hiṁsā) against aggressors.
    • The Jain perspective prioritizes actions that contribute to the "maximum welfare of the maximum number of beings."
    • It explains the concept of "Apavāda" (exceptionary path) in Jain texts, allowing deviations from strict rules in critical situations for the greater good, citing the stories of Kalakacharya (rescuing his sister from King Gardhabhill) and Vishukumar Muni (protecting the Sangha from King Namuchi).
    • These examples demonstrate that Jain monks were sometimes compelled to use force or strategy to protect the Sangha and uphold Dharma, indicating that world welfare was the ultimate criterion for defining Ahimsa.
    • The text argues that virtues like Ahimsa and truthfulness have value only when they contribute to public welfare.
    • It contrasts this with the idea of prioritizing personal asceticism over societal duty.
    • The story of a king choosing his son who shared his food with hungry dogs illustrates the importance of compassion and sharing in the context of Ahimsa and public welfare.

13. Jainism - A People's Religion (Lokadharma):

    • Reiterates that Mahavira's religion was for the common people, not exclusive.
    • His decision to preach in local languages like Magadhi and Ardha-Magadhi instead of Sanskrit was to reach a wider audience, including children, the elderly, women, and the illiterate.
    • The rapid spread of his teachings, despite the lack of mass media, attests to their profound impact on the public.
    • Over time, Jainism incorporated local deities and practices to connect with popular traditions, integrating elements like the worship of Indra, Skanda, Nāgas, and Bhūtas.
    • The adaptation of festival dates (e.g., Pāyūṣaṇa being shifted) and the inclusion of local artistic motifs in Jain temples (like those in Mathura) demonstrate Jainism's responsiveness to popular culture.
    • The use of mystical practices (vidyā-mantra) by some Jain acharyas for the Sangha's protection also shows this accommodation.
    • The text observes that as Jainism became more rigid and sectarian, it lost its broad appeal and became more ritualistic, adopting practices from neighboring traditions like fire worship and caste distinctions, thereby losing its distinctive character.

14. Comparison of Mahavira and Buddha:

    • Mentions the "six heretical teachers" listed in Buddhist texts, identifying "Nigrantha Nataputta" as Mahavira.
    • Notes that Mahavira and Buddha were contemporaries, with Mahavira possibly passing away after Buddha.
    • Highlights similarities: both were born princes (Vardhamana of Jnatri clan, Siddhartha of Shakya clan) and achieved enlightenment.
    • Differences:
      • Mahavira: Emphasized severe asceticism, self-mortification, and outward discipline. His religion is termed "Atmadharma" (self-religion) due to its focus on individual effort away from society.
      • Buddha: Advocated the Middle Path, renouncing extreme asceticism and sensual indulgence. His teachings focused on mental purity, ethical conduct, and societal engagement, leading to his religion being called "Lokadharma" (people's religion).
    • Mahavira's Ahimsa was strict, while Buddha's emphasized compassion and sympathy.
    • Mahavira presented a clear philosophy of soul, liberation, etc., while Buddha focused on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a way of life.
    • Both were revolutionary figures who aimed for societal welfare but approached it through different means (Mahavira through individual discipline and detachment, Buddha through ethical engagement and societal reform).

15. Mahavira's Nirvana and After:

    • After twelve years of asceticism, Mahavira spent thirty years preaching.
    • He passed away at Pāvā during the Kartika Amavasya (New Moon day in October-November).
    • His Nirvana was marked by a great festival of lights by the eighteen kings of the Malla and Lichchavi republics.
    • The event was mourned as the extinguishing of a divine light, the departure of the protector of the weak, and the loss of the world's guide. However, his followers pledged to carry on his teachings and legacy.
    • The text reflects on the subsequent history, noting that despite the efforts of reformist leaders, society often drifts from its core principles.
    • It points out the misuse and distortion of both Mahavira's and Buddha's teachings over time, leading to laxity, ritualism, and sectarian divisions.

16. Conclusion:

    • The author attributes the downfall of Indian society to internal divisions, lack of national unity, narrow-mindedness, neglect of worldly concerns in favor of the afterlife, blaming others instead of self-reflection, and a failure to adapt old traditions to new times.
    • This led to loss of freedom, cultural impoverishment, and a decline in arts, sciences, empathy, and rise of envy, greed, and foreign influence.
    • The author laments the current state of social inequality, exploitation of the poor, and poverty despite abundant resources.
    • He identifies political problems, division, selfishness, and a lack of character as root causes.
    • The solution proposed is a revival of Mahavira's principles of Ahimsa, austerity, and renunciation, focusing on ethical and character building.
    • True Ahimsa, he argues, lies in serving the downtrodden and exploited. True austerity and renunciation involve self-sacrifice for their upliftment.
    • He draws parallels with the Russian Revolution to show the power of collective action and calls for awakening the masses.
    • He emphasizes that political issues must be resolved before progress in arts, sciences, and culture can be made.
    • The ultimate goal is to propagate principles like non-possession and Ahimsa, advocating for a society where "Live and let live" is paramount for peace and happiness.
    • He concludes with a quote from the Bible (Jesus's advice to the rich young ruler) and Rabindranath Tagore, stressing the immense effort, self-sacrifice, and broadening of perspective needed to truly embody these ideals and achieve societal transformation.

Mahavira Vachanāmṛta (Nectar of Mahavira's Sayings): This section contains selected quotes from Mahavira, emphasizing core Jain principles like:

• The preciousness of life and the suffering of all beings.
• The duty of monks to avoid harming any living creature.
• The importance of speaking truth and avoiding false speech.
• True renunciation is detachment from desires (mūrchhā), not mere outward possessions.
• The nature of a true renunciant (tyāgī).
• The futility of wealth in achieving salvation without self-control.
• Conquering anger with peace, pride with humility, deceit with simplicity, and greed with contentment.
• Self-control is the most difficult yet essential path to happiness.
• The disciplined mind achieves success, like a well-armored horse in battle.
• The necessity of continuous effort and vigilance in spiritual practice.
• The importance of renouncing worldly attachments and friends.
• True liberation is in one's own hands through right faith, knowledge, and conduct.
• Outward asceticism is meaningless without good conduct.
• Mere ascetic practices are insignificant compared to following the teachings of the wise.
• True munis, Brahmins, and ascetics are defined by their inner qualities, not by outward appearances or birth.
• Attachment and delusion lead to repeated births.
• True austerity is unknown and not performed for fame.
• A true monk is free from pride of caste, form, gain, or knowledge.
• Liberation comes from inner realization and the practice of right faith, knowledge, and conduct, not from external symbols.

In essence, the book "Mahavira Vardhaman" presents a deeply researched and interpretative account of Lord Mahavira, aiming to bridge the gap between ancient teachings and modern understanding, emphasizing the societal relevance and practical application of Jain principles for individual and collective well-being.