Mahavir Yugin Kal - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Mahavir Yugin Kal" by S.M. Pahadiya, covering its key aspects:

Overview:

The book "Mahavir Yugin Kal" (The Era of Lord Mahavir) by Dr. S.M. Pahadiya describes the period during which Lord Mahavir lived. It portrays this era as a revolutionary time of renaissance, marked by the decline of old beliefs and the emergence of new consciousness and ideas across all spheres of life. The text highlights the significant changes occurring in politics, society, economics, religion, and art during this period.

Political Conditions:

Mahajanapadas: The era was characterized by the presence of sixteen major kingdoms known as "Solah Mahajanapadas," which had defined borders and included both monarchies and republics.
Republics: Smaller republics were governed by independent or semi-independent clans like the Shakyas of Kapilavastu, Koliya of Devdaha and Ramagrama, Bhagga of Sumsumara Hills, Bulis of Kalakappa, Kalan of Keshput, and Mauryas of Pippalivana.
Monarchies: Kings were generally Kshatriyas and, though often absolute, were expected to uphold ten "state dharma" (royal duties), one of which was ethical conduct. The king's primary role was to protect the state from external and internal threats. Kingship was hereditary, with the eldest son known as "Upraja" and the commander-in-chief being a relative. A council of five ministers, called "Amachchha," assisted the king.
Provincial and Village Administration: Provincial governance was nearly autonomous. The "Gram Bhojak" held a significant position in village administration. The state held ultimate authority in judicial matters, with a "Vinichhayamachchha" assisting the justice minister.
Military Organization: The military was well-organized, comprising chariots, elephants, cavalry, and infantry.
Republican Governance: Republics, comparable to Sparta, Athens, Rome, and medieval Venice, were governed by a supreme general assembly called "Santhagar." Various factions vied for power within these assemblies, which convened with a quorum. Proposals were presented according to established rules, and voting was conducted secretly, through whispers, or openly. The assembly controlled the executive branch, with its membership determined by the state's population and traditions. These republics offered commendable justice systems and protected civil liberties, aiming to ascertain innocence rather than guilt.
Principles of Good Governance: The text lists seven principles outlined by King Ajatashatru's minister Varshakar to the King of Magadha as vital for governance: convening public assemblies, collective decision-making and action, upholding existing rules, respecting and supporting elders, not detaining women and girls through force or abduction, respecting and assisting sacred sites (Chaityas), and protecting and supporting Arhats.
Citizenship: Citizenship appears to have been limited to the noble Kshatriyas.

Social Conditions:

Social Hierarchy: Kshatriyas held a high status, although this was sometimes contested in Buddhist literature. The influence of Brahmins was diminishing, with some adopting less prestigious professions like carpentry and charioteering, though Brahminical texts offer a contrasting view.
Varna System and Caste: The status of Shudras was poor before Mahavir, and he made considerable efforts to improve it. Among the lower castes mentioned are Chandala, Ven, Nishad, Rathkar, and Pusuk. Spiritual pursuits were open to the untouchables, with Harikeshbal, a Chandala, becoming a monk. Mixed-caste groups also emerged.
Slavery: Slavery was prevalent, with even the noble princess Chandana having to become a slave.
Family Structure: The system of joint families became popular, with members generally having harmonious relationships, though occasional conflicts are noted. The concept of "property rights" began to form due to independent earning by family members.
Marriage Customs: Brahmana, Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, and Rakshasa marriage systems were in practice, along with "Swayamvara" (self-choice marriage). The importance of Gotra in marriage increased. While cousin marriages were common among the Shakyas (e.g., sister's marriage) and Lichchavis (e.g., maternal cousin marriage), and even brother-sister marriages are mentioned in some contexts, Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages also occurred. The average age of a bride was sixteen. Widows could remarry in certain circumstances, and divorce was also possible, allowing remarriage for both parties. Monogamy was common, but the wealthy often practiced polygamy. Courtesans played a significant role in urban life, patronizing arts like music and dance.
Diet and Lifestyle: Wheat and pulses were staple foods. Sattu, kumasa, pua, khaja, tilakuta, milk and dairy products (curd, butter, ghee) were widely consumed. Vegetables like cucumber, gourds, and fruits like mangoes and jamuns were popular. Archaeological findings indicated meat consumption, despite Mahavir's strong advocacy for vegetarianism. Alcohol was prevalent, though religiously inclined individuals abstained.
Clothing and Adornments: Common attire included antaravasaka, uttarasanga, and usnisa. Both men and women wore bodices (kanchuk). Women wore sarees. Clothes were made from cotton, wool, flax, palm leaves, silk, and jute. Stitching and tailoring were practiced. Monks, nuns, and distinguished men wore specific types of clothing. Both sexes wore ornaments like rings, earrings, and necklaces. Cosmetics and beauty aids were widely described in contemporary literature. Furniture like chairs and beds is mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. Pottery and metalware were used, with black-and-red pottery being a distinctive feature of the era.
Festivals and Entertainment: People participated in festivals called "Samajja," with Shalabhanjika being particularly popular. Other festivals included Komudi and Hasti-mangal. Entertainment involved visiting gardens and listening to music.

Economic Conditions:

Rural Economy: Villages were the centers of the rural economy, with agriculture being the primary livelihood. New agricultural methods were developed, including plowing, fencing fields, sowing seeds, weeding, harvesting, and bundling crops. Irrigation was done through wells and reservoirs.
Agriculture and Livestock: Cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, donkeys, camels, pigs, and dogs were used in agriculture. Crops included cotton, wool, rice, wheat, gram, beans, pears, castor oil seeds, mustard, sesame, ginger, cloves, turmeric, cumin, chili, and sugarcane. Various medicinal plants, fruits, and betel leaves were cultivated. Measures were taken to protect crops from animals and birds.
Crafts and Industries: Besides agriculture, spinning, weaving, carpentry, and blacksmithing were common. Iron smelting furnaces were in operation, and iron objects have been excavated. Ivory work, garland making, and perfumery were also practiced. Home industries like gum production, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, dyeing, and leatherwork flourished.
Trade and Commerce: Construction was extensive. Trade and business, both domestic and foreign, were thriving, with evidence of maritime trade. Indian cedarwood was found in a palace in Persia. Foreign trade is also described in Jataka tales and Sri Lankan history.
Guilds and Currency: A significant economic development was the organization of trade and industries into guilds. The circulation of coins was another important aspect, with coins found in various locations.
Loans and Weights/Measures: Lending practices existed. Panini documented various weights and measures, and excavations have provided further information on these. Goods were bought and sold in large markets, with indications of price negotiation.

Religious Conditions:

Global Religious Renaissance: The era witnessed revolutionary changes in religion not only in India but worldwide. Mahavir's era is called the age of mass awakening. Religious movements emerged simultaneously in various centers of civilization: Zoroaster in Persia preached monotheism, Heraclitus and Pythagoras in Greece discussed reincarnation, Confucius and Lao Tzu in China presented new philosophies, and Jews under Babylonian rule affirmed their faith in Jehovah.
Indian Religious Movements: In India, various spiritual and intellectual movements arose against Brahmanism, with Buddhism and Jainism being prominent. Like Luther and Calvin in the 19th century, they propagated teachings of non-violence, non-stealing, non-possession, and truth.
Emphasis on Spirituality: Religious tolerance was advocated, and liberation (moksha) was emphasized. Spiritual consciousness was awakened through debates and differences among rival ideologies and sects. Belief in heaven and hell, and the concept of karma (fruits of actions), were prevalent.

Art:

Architecture: Royal palaces were located in the center of the capital, surrounded by ramparts. Palaces were often two-storied with three courtyards. Walls and pillars were adorned with beautiful figures. Buildings were constructed from bricks, stone, and wood, with provisions for windows, doors, and verandahs. Health considerations were incorporated into the construction of government and other buildings. Descriptions of Deva-klika (temple-like structures) and Chaityas are found. Excavations have shed light on the construction of stupas.
Sculpture and Pottery: Jain sources mention the installation of statues of Lord Mahavir in Ujjain, Dashpur, and Vidisha by King Pradyota. Archaeological findings and literary works provide information on pottery and earthenware from Mahavir's time.
Painting: Jain and Buddhist literature highlights the importance of religious and other paintings. Paintings from this era are found in caves in the Mahadeva hills of Panchmarhi, Bhimbetka near Bhopal, Mori near Mandsaur, Singhanpura, Kabra Pahar, Likunia, Kohwar, Mehrida, Bhaldariya, Bijagarh in Mirzapur, and Manikpur in Banda.
Other Artifacts: Various artifacts made of metal, bone, and stone have been excavated. Coins, seals, potter's brushes for applying colors, stone pestles, grinding stones, and platters offer glimpses into the art of the era.

In essence, "Mahavir Yugin Kal" provides a detailed and multi-faceted account of the socio-political, economic, religious, and artistic landscape of ancient India during the time of Lord Mahavir, emphasizing it as a period of profound transformation and intellectual ferment.