Mahavir Ke Samsamayik Shraman Dharmnayak Evam Unke Siddhant

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Mahavir ke Samsamayik Shraman Dharmnayak evam unke Siddhant" by Sohanraj Kothari:

Mahavir's Contemporary Ascetic Religious Leaders and Their Doctrines

This book, authored by Sohanraj Kothari, former District Judge of Rajasthan, delves into the religious landscape of the era of Lord Mahavir, highlighting the prominent ascetic religious leaders of his time and their respective philosophical tenets.

The Religious Climate of Lord Mahavir's Era:

• Lord Mahavir's epoch was characterized by a proliferation of diverse religious doctrines and rituals. According to Buddhist literature (Sutta Nipata), there were sixty-three ascetic traditions prevalent at the time. Jain Agamas (Nandi Sutra 76) mention sixty-three such schools of thought.
• India has historically been shaped by two major cultural streams: Brahmanical and Shramanic.
  • Brahmanical culture emphasized the acceptance of God as the creator and complete devotion to Him. It prioritized devotional feelings, faith, and surrender.
  • Shramanic culture centered on the belief in the independent soul of every being, and the soul itself as the creator of one's happiness and sorrow. It emphasized action, knowledge, and self-effort.
• While these two traditions had distinct focal points, both incorporated the principles of devotion, action, and knowledge, albeit with varying emphasis.
• The Shramanic tradition itself had multiple branches, with Lord Rishabh as its most ancient proponent and Lord Buddha as its most recent. All other branches were intermediate.

Prominent Contemporary Ascetic Leaders and Their Doctrines:

The book focuses on six key figures who were contemporaries and often rivals of Lord Mahavir and Lord Buddha. The author notes that while the doctrines of some of these figures are well-documented in Jain and Buddhist scriptures, others are less so due to the decline of their traditions.

1. Purana Kassapa and Akriyavada (Doctrine of Non-Action):

   • Life: Little is known about Purana Kassapa's life. The text mentions a brief discussion of his doctrines in the Buddhist text Digha Nikaya.
   • Doctrine: Purana Kassapa denied the fruit of action. He believed that while an action might have immediate consequences, it did not yield any future results for the doer. He asserted that violence, falsehood, theft, and adultery did not incur any sin, just as non-violence, truthfulness, charity, pilgrimage, and a restrained life did not generate merit. This philosophy implicitly negated beliefs in the afterlife, heaven, and hell. His doctrine was named Akriyavada (non-action) due to his disbelief in the results of actions.
   • Jain References: Akriyavada is mentioned in the Jain Agama Sutrakritanga alongside other philosophical schools. The text notes that Mahavir had a thorough understanding of Akriyavada.
   • Significance: Despite the lack of detailed systematic information, the fact that King Ajatashatru of Magadha inquired about his principles indicates Purana Kassapa's significant influence and a likely well-organized religious order. His tradition, however, did not continue for various reasons.

2. Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Anishchitavada (Doctrine of Indeterminism/Uncertainty):

   • Life: Sanjaya Belatthiputta also claimed to be a Tirthankara and was a rival to Mahavir and Buddha.
   • Doctrine: He presented an uncertain view on the afterlife, gods, and the results of good and bad karma. His philosophy can be summarized as follows: "Whether the afterlife exists or not, I do not know. Whether it exists or not, I do not know. Whether good or bad actions yield results, I do not believe. Whether they do or not, I do not believe. It exists, and it does not exist. Whether the enlightened one (Tathagata) exists after death or not, I do not understand. Whether he exists, or he does not exist, I do not know." This is based on the four "bhangas" (standpoints): existence, non-existence, both, and neither.
   • Connection to Jainism: The author suggests that the essence of Jainism's Anekantavada (the principle of manifold aspects) might be present in Sanjaya's doctrine in a rudimentary form, which Lord Mahavir later refined and systematized. However, without more information about Sanjaya's broader beliefs, this remains speculative.

3. Pakudha Katyayana and Akritavada (Doctrine of the Uncreated):

   • Life: Pakudha Katyayana was a renowned and respected religious leader of his time.
   • Doctrine: He accepted the existence of seven fundamental elements: earth, water, fire, air, happiness, sorrow, and the soul (jiva). He asserted that these seven elements are "akrita" (uncreated), immutable, unchanging, and incapable of harming anything. The text highlights that his acceptance of the soul (jiva), which is imperceptible and beyond the senses, indicates that he was not purely materialistic and had some inclination towards spirituality.
   • Comparison: The first four of the seven elements accepted by Pakudha Katyayana were the same as those accepted by Ajita Kesakambali.

4. Ajita Kesakambali and Uchchhedavada (Doctrine of Annihilation/Materialism):

   • Doctrine: This doctrine, as summarized from Digha Nikaya, states: "There is no charity, no sacrifice, no offering, no fruit or result of good or bad deeds. There is no mother, no father, no unborn beings (gods), and no wise and capable Brahmins or ascetics in this world who know and realize this world and the next and will speak of it. Man is made of four great elements, and when he dies, the earth element merges into the earth, the water, fire, and air elements merge into them, and the senses merge into the ether. People carry the corpse on a ladder, criticizing or praising it. The bones become white like doves and scatter, and everything is reduced to ashes. Fools who give donations receive no benefit. Belief in an eternal soul is false. Both fools and the wise, upon the destruction of the body, are annihilated. After death, no one remains."
   • Connection to Charvaka: The author likens these views to a form of Charvaka materialism and considers Ajita Kesakambali to be its originator and influential figure.
   • Name Origin: The name "Ajita Kesakambali" is interpreted as suggesting his name was Ajita, and he perhaps wore a rough, unrefined blanket woven from hair, possibly indicating a renunciation of worldly comforts and a simple, ascetic lifestyle.
   • Indian Philosophical Freedom: The text points out the characteristic Indian intellectual freedom that allowed even materialistic doctrines like Uchchhedavada to be discussed as philosophical systems, with their proponents' views being respected.

5. Mankhali Gosala and Niyativada (Doctrine of Fatalism) and the Ajivika Sect:

   • Life: Mankhali Gosala, a contemporary of Mahavir and Buddha, also claimed to be a Tirthankara. He was a fatalist, believing that everything is predetermined and that effort or endeavor is meaningless.
   • Jain and Buddhist References: Although there are no independent texts by Gosala, his life, initiation, activities, and doctrines are extensively detailed in the fifteenth chapter of the Jain text Bhagavati Sutra and the Buddhist texts Majjhima Nikaya and Anguttara Nikaya, due to his former discipleship of Lord Mahavir and subsequent opposition.
   • Biographical Details: According to the Bhagavati Sutra, Gosala was born in a cowshed and made a living by displaying paintings and begging. He came into contact with Lord Mahavir, was initiated by him, and gained knowledge of tejolabdhi (psychic power related to heat). He later separated from Mahavir, calling himself a Jina, Arhat, and omniscient. He gained many followers due to his knowledge of prognostication.
   • Conflict with Mahavir: Driven by envy of Mahavir's prestige, Gosala used his tejolabdhi against Mahavir during Mahavir's samavasarana (preaching assembly). Mahavir endured the intense heat, which caused him physical suffering but did not defeat him. The tejolabdhi returned to Gosala, causing him immense suffering, and he died seven days later. During his final days, he is said to have recounted eight "ultimate principles" and discussed rebirth through his doctrines.
   • Doctrinal Conflicts: The text provides examples from Jain scriptures where disciples were guided away from Gosala's fatalistic views by Lord Mahavir, emphasizing the importance of karma and effort.
   • Legacy: Gosala and his followers were known for their extreme asceticism. Although his religious order was vast, it did not continue after his death, and his independent tradition and texts are no longer available.

6. Gautama Buddha and Buddhism:

   • Birth and Early Life: Siddhartha Gautama was born in Lumbini. After his mother's death seven days after his birth, he was raised by his aunt. Siddhartha was compassionate from a young age. He received education in Vedas and Upanishads and studied warfare. He married Yashodhara, had a son named Rahula, but remained detached from worldly pleasures.
   • Enlightenment: Witnessing an old man, a sick person, and a funeral procession, followed by seeing a contented ascetic, led him to seek the cause of suffering and its cessation. At the age of 35, after renouncing his royal life and practicing intense yoga and meditation, he attained enlightenment under a Bodhi tree and became known as Gautama Buddha.
   • Teachings: His first sermon was in Sarnath. He preached until the age of 80, attracting followers from all castes. He sent monks and nuns to spread Buddhism internationally. He passed away at the age of 80.
   • Core Principles: Buddhism follows the Middle Path and established the Four Noble Truths: suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering. The Eightfold Path (right knowledge, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and meditation) was prescribed for the cessation of suffering.
   • Branches and Scriptures: Buddhism later split into Hinayana (emphasizing the Eightfold Path) and Mahayana (emphasizing the six perfections: charity, morality, patience, vigor, meditation, and wisdom). The Jataka tales describe Buddha's past lives, and his doctrines are expounded in the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Dhammapada emphasizes effort and self-restraint.
   • Global Reach: Buddhism has millions of followers in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia and is a vibrant and prominent force of Shramanic culture worldwide.

Conclusion:

The book highlights the intellectual vibrancy and diverse philosophical currents of Lord Mahavir's time. It meticulously details the doctrines of his prominent contemporaries, drawing primarily from Jain and Buddhist scriptures, and emphasizes the enduring legacy of Jainism and Buddhism in shaping India's spiritual and philosophical heritage. The author notes that while the philosophies of some leaders have faded into history, the core tenets of Jainism and Buddhism continue to thrive.