Mahavir Kalin Vibhinna Atmavad Evam Jain Atmavad Ka Vaishishtya - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, focusing on the different theories of the soul (Atman) prevalent during Mahavira's time and the distinctiveness of the Jain view:

Book Title: Mahavir kalin Vibhinna Atmavad evam jain Atmavad ka Vaishishtya (Different Theories of the Soul during Mahavira's time and the Speciality of Jainism's Soul Theory) Author: Sagarmal Jain

Core Argument: The central thesis of this text is that the philosophical and ethical teachings of Mahavira were deeply rooted in his understanding of the soul (Atman). To fully appreciate Mahavira's doctrine, it's essential to understand the diverse theories of the soul that existed during his time and to critically analyze how Jainism's concept of the soul stands out. The author argues that Mahavira's own Atman theory was not simply one among many but a synthesized and superior approach that addressed the shortcomings of other contemporary views.

Contextualizing Mahavira's Atman Theory:

Influence of Upanishads: The author begins by noting that the philosophical beliefs about the soul (Atman) formed the foundation of religious and ethical thought in ancient India. The Upanishadic literature, in particular, contained various nascent ideas about the soul, which were later influenced by the Sramana traditions (including Jainism and Buddhism). While Upanishads attempted to integrate these diverse ideas into a concept of Brahman, the existence of contrasting views within them is evidence of their formative stage.
Addressing a Misconception: A common misconception, according to the author, is that there were no definitive philosophical theories of the soul during Mahavira and Buddha's time. Instead, it's believed that these thinkers focused solely on ethical discourse and ritualistic systems. The author refutes this, asserting that various schools of thought with distinct Atman theories were indeed present.

Categorization of Contemporary Atman Theories:

The text proposes a classification of the different Atman theories prevalent during Mahavira's era to facilitate understanding. While a comprehensive analysis of all is not possible due to space limitations, the author outlines the main categories:

Eternal or Perennial Atman (Nitya ya Shasvat Atmavad): The soul is considered permanent and unchanging.
Non-eternal Atman, Annihilationist Atman, Body-Atman (Anitya Atmavad, Ucched Atmavad, Dehatmavad): The soul is impermanent, ceases to exist with the body, or is identical with the body.
Unchanging Atman, Inactive Atman, Fatalism (Kutastha Atmavad, Akriya Atmavad, Niyativad): The soul is immutable, does not perform actions, and its destiny is predetermined.
Transforming Atman, Agent Atman, Effort-based Atman (Parinami Atmavad, Atma Kartritvad, Purusharthvad): The soul undergoes change and is the doer of its actions, with destiny being shaped by effort.
Subtle Atman (Sukshma Atmavad): The soul is infinitesimally small.
All-pervading Atman (Vibhu Atmavad): The soul is all-pervading.
Non-Atman (Anatmavad): The concept of an Atman itself is denied.
All-Atman or Brahman-Atman (Sarva Atmavad ya Brahmavad): Everything is the soul, or the soul is identical with the universal consciousness (Brahman).

Analysis of Specific Contemporary Atman Theories:

The text then delves into the analysis of specific theories and their representatives:

Anitya Atmavad (Non-eternal Atman) / Ucched Atmavad (Annihilationist Atman):
- Representative: Ajit Kesakambali.
- Belief: The soul originates with the body and perishes with it. Actions and their consequences (karma vipak) are meaningless. There is no afterlife, no gods. The self is merely a combination of the four elements.
- Critique: The author questions how such a hedonistic and materialistic philosophy could lead to practices like self-mortification and the formation of a monastic order. This suggests Ajit's view might have been a philosophical stance on the impermanence of the world rather than a complete denial of ethical consequences.
- Connection to Buddhism: Ajit's philosophy is seen as a precursor to Buddhist philosophy. The author notes that Buddhism adopted Ajit's concept of non-eternality while discarding the emphasis on self-mortification.
- Ethical Implication: This theory is considered ethically flawed as it cannot explain the principle of karma and its fruition, nor does it provide meaning to moral ideals like charity, altruism, and merit accumulation.
- Possible Motivation: Ajit might have advocated non-eternality to free humanity from violence caused by rituals and wars, and to alleviate suffering caused by desire and attachment. His ethics were likely focused on achieving subjective pleasure (Atma-sukha).
Nitya Kutastha Atmavad (Eternal, Unchanging Atman):
- Representatives: Purnakashyap (contemporary of Mahavira), Sankhya, and Vedanta.
- Belief: The soul is eternal, unchanging, and inactive (Kutastha). Actions performed by or to the soul do not affect its essential nature.
- Purnakashyap's Doctrine: Purnakashyap taught that actions like killing, stealing, lying, or giving charity have no merit or demerit. This is seen as a misrepresentation by opponents, where his view of the soul as inactive was presented as a complete lack of moral agency.
- Critique: The author argues that the inactive soul theory leads to determinism or fatalism. If the soul is inactive, it cannot be responsible for its actions, thus undermining concepts of morality, duty, and ethical responsibility. The author suggests Purnakashyap likely believed in self-development through performing one's duties according to one's social standing, similar to later interpretations of the Bhagavad Gita.
- Influence: This philosophy influenced Kapila's Sankhya and the Bhagavad Gita, as well as Makkhali Gosala's Ajivika sect, which emphasized determinism and passive self-development.
Sukshma Atmavad (Subtle Atman):
- Representative: Pakudha Katyayana (contemporary of Buddha).
- Belief: The soul is eternal, unchanging, subtle, and indestructible. It exists in the space between the seven fundamental substances and is even subtler than the tip of a needle.
- Connection to Upanishads/Gita: Similar ideas of the soul being subtler than a mustard seed and indestructible are found in the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
- Ethical Flaw: This theory is also considered philosophically flawed.

Mahavira's Atman Theory: A Synthesis (Vaishishtya)

The core of the text highlights the distinctive nature of Mahavira's Atman theory as a synthesis of the various contemporary ideas:

Synthesis of Opposing Views: Mahavira's philosophy is characterized by its ability to integrate and harmonize the seemingly contradictory doctrines of the soul.
Overcoming Flaws: His approach sought to overcome the ethical and philosophical weaknesses inherent in each individual theory.
Jain Atman Theory's Distinctiveness:
- Entity as an Astikaya: The soul (Jiva) is classified as an Astikaya (a substance with spatial existence).
- Characteristic of Consciousness (Upayoga/Chetana): The defining characteristic of the soul is consciousness, which manifests as perception (Darshana - formless) and knowledge (Jnana - specific).
- Multiple Souls: A key Jain tenet is that the soul is not a single entity but exists in infinite numbers, with each soul having an independent existence.
- The Synthesis: Mahavira's Atman is described as:
  - Eternal (Nitya): In its essence, the soul always exists.
  - Non-eternal (Anitya) in its modifications: The soul undergoes changes in its states or modifications (paryaya), making it non-eternal in that aspect. This is a practical non-eternality due to karma.
  - Unchanging (Kutastha) in its intrinsic nature: In its own specific characteristic (Svalakshana), the soul is not a doer or experiencer or undergoing transformation.
  - Transforming/Agent (Parinami/Kartritva): Bonded souls (baddha-atma) are the doers and experiencers of karma, this is an accidental quality arising from karmic matter.
  - Subtle and All-pervading (Sukshma and Vibhu): The soul can contract or expand. Jainism posits that soul particles can become so subtle that infinite souls can reside on the tip of a needle. The potential for expansion means that the soul's regions can pervade the entire universe.
Example of Synthesis: The text uses an analogy from Acharya Hemachandra: just as jaggery can cause phlegm and ginger can cause bile, but when combined judiciously, they don't have these adverse effects. Similarly, individual Atman theories have their flaws, but Mahavira's synthesis removes these defects.

Conclusion:

Mahavira's Atman theory is presented as a sophisticated and comprehensive synthesis that resolves the philosophical and ethical dilemmas posed by contemporary Atman theories. It is this balanced, non-absolute, and universally applicable understanding of the soul that constitutes the unique contribution and strength of Jainism. The author emphasizes that Mahavira's doctrine was not merely a reconciliation but a refinement and elevation of existing ideas, leading to a more coherent and ethically robust framework for spiritual progress.