Lord Mahavira And His Times

This document is a comprehensive summary of the book "Lord Mahavira and His Times" by Kailash Chand Jain, published by Motilal Banarsidass. The book delves into the historical, religious, social, economic, artistic, and literary landscape of India during the 6th century BCE, the era of Lord Mahavira.

Here's a breakdown of the key aspects covered in the summary, based on the provided text:

I. Book Overview and Context:

• Title: Lord Mahavira and His Times
• Author: Kailash Chand Jain (M.A., Ph.D., D.Litt.)
• Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
• Publication Year: 1974
• Objective: To provide a historical and cultural panorama of India during the age of Lord Mahavira, examining the political, religious, social, economic, artistic, and literary spheres.
• Significance: The book aims to understand Lord Mahavira's life and teachings within the context of his times, highlighting the period as a creative epoch in Indian history marked by significant developments.
• Fair Use Declaration: The initial pages include a "Fair Use Declaration" by The Free Indological Collection (TFIC), explaining that the book is provided for educational/research use under Fair Use guidelines and is believed to be in the public domain or disseminated with public dissemination as the intent of the original repository.

II. Foreword and Publishers' Note:

• Foreword by D.S. Kothari: Emphasizes the timely and valuable nature of the publication, highlighting Ahimsa (non-violence) as India's most significant contribution to civilization, embodied by Lord Mahavira. Kothari quotes Mahatma Gandhi on the relevance of Ahimsa in the atomic age.
• Publishers' Note (All India Sadhumargi Jain Sangh, Bikaner): Released on the auspicious occasion of the 2500th parinirvana anniversary of Tirthankara Mahavira. The Sangh's aims include promoting moral and spiritual life, social justice, and education. They acknowledge Dr. Jain's contribution and state that his views are his own and may not necessarily align with the Sangh's beliefs.

III. Preface and Structure:

• Preface by Kailash Chand Jain: Outlines the scope of the book, covering the 6th century BC in India, a period of political unification under Magadha, propagation of new religious sects like Buddhism and Jainism, economic prosperity, and developments in arts and literature.
• Acknowledgement of Previous Works: Jain reviews the existing literature on ancient India and Jainism, identifying gaps and the need to incorporate Jaina sources more comprehensively, as well as recent archaeological findings.
• Book Structure: The study is divided into ten chapters, detailing:
  1. Jainism before Mahavira.
  2. Sources (Literature and Archaeology).
  3. Life of Lord Mahavira (birth, teachings, disciples, contemporaries, schisms, Nirvana).
  4. Teachings of Mahavira (Vows, Karma, Lesyas, Nayas, conduct for ascetics).
  5. Religious Contemporaries and Sects (Brahmanical and Sramana sects, founders like Purana Kassapa, Pakudha Kachchayana, Ajita Kesakambalin, Sanjaya Belatthiputta, Mankhali Gosala, Buddha).
  6. Political Conditions and Institutions (16 Mahajanapadas, monarchies vs. republics, Magadhan imperialism, constitutional aspects).
  7. Social Conditions (Varna system, family life, marriage, position of women, food, dress, festivals).
  8. Economic Conditions (Rural economy, agriculture, industry, trade, guilds, coinage, professions).
  9. Art and Architecture (Town planning, secular and religious architecture, materials, painting, sculpture, terracotta, ceramics, metal objects).
  10. Education, Literature and Sciences (Education system, private teachers, hermitages, subjects of study, literature of different sects, sciences like grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, engineering).
• Chronological Discussions: The book critically examines the dates of Lord Mahavira's Nirvana, presenting various theories and their criticisms.

IV. Key Themes and Chapters Summarized:

• Chapter I: Jainism Before Lord Mahavira:

  • Discusses Jainism's traditional view of eternity and the concept of Tirthankaras.
  • Examines archaeological evidence and its limitations in dating Jainism's antiquity.
  • Analyzes the theory of twenty-four Tirthankaras and identifies Rishabha as the traditional founder.
  • Discusses Arishtanemi (Neminatha) and his connection to Krishna.
  • Explores the argument for Jainism as a pre-Vedic religion, citing terms like Vātaraśana, Muni, Yati, Śramaṇa, Keśí, Vrātya, Arhan, and Śiśnadeva, but notes the lack of definitive pre-Vedic evidence.
  • Highlights Pārśvanātha as a historical figure, detailing his life, teachings (four vows), organization, and the disputes with Mahavira's followers.

• Chapter II: Sources:

  • Divides sources into two main classes: Literature (Jaina Canonical, Exegeses, Purānas/Charitras, Miscellaneous) and Archaeology.
  • Emphasizes the oral tradition of Jaina literature and its subsequent codification with potential interpolations.
  • Discusses collateral evidence from Buddhist and Brahmanical sources, noting areas of agreement and disagreement.
  • Highlights the importance of the Pali Nikayas for understanding Mahavira's context.
  • Details archaeological findings related to early cities, building materials, terracottas, ceramics, and metal objects.

• Chapter III: Life of Lord Mahavira:

  • Describes Mahavira's clan (Nata/Naya/Jnatri) and his contemporaries' appellation "Nigantha Nātaputta."
  • Details his birth and parentage (Siddhartha and Trišala), including the Svetambara tradition of womb transfer and the Digambara rejection of it.
  • Discusses his birthplace, Kundapura/Kundagrāma near Vaishali, and the confusion with modern sites.
  • Narrates legends of his childhood, emphasizing his strength and valor.
  • Addresses the controversial detail of his marriage (Svetambara vs. Digambara accounts).
  • Covers his ascetic life (12 years of preparation), renunciation, hardships, and the encounter with Gosala.
  • Details his attainment of Kevala Jnana (supreme knowledge) and Nirvana.
  • Discusses the different theories and controversies surrounding the date of his Nirvana (ranging from 437 B.C. to 545 B.C.), weighing various scholarly arguments.
  • Presents Mahavira's personality as a reformer, organizer, and epitome of virtue.

• Chapter IV: Teachings of Mahavira:

  • Describes Mahavira as a reformer who systematized Jainism, building on Pārśvanātha's foundation.
  • Explains the ultimate goal of Nirvana and the path to it through annihilation of old Karma (Nirjara) and prevention of new Karma (Samvara).
  • Details the core principles of Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct (Triratna).
  • Elaborates on austerities (external and internal) and the Five Vows (Mahavrata for ascetics, anuvrata for lay followers), including the addition of Chastity (Brahmacharya) as a distinct vow.
  • Explains the Doctrine of Nine Categories (Navatattva) and the Theory of Karma, emphasizing individual responsibility and the dynamic nature of Karma.
  • Discusses the Six Lesyas (psychic colors) and the Doctrine of Nayas (multiple viewpoints), highlighting its role in promoting religious tolerance.
  • Covers various principles related to exertion of righteousness, discipline, and the actions of ignorant vs. wise men.
  • Describes the conditions for perfect chastity, the duties of monks, Samitis and Guptis, and the correct daily behavior of monks.
  • Provides details on the code of conduct for ascetics, addressing troubles, renunciation, and the ideal of a true monk.

• Chapter V: Lord Mahavira's Religious Contemporaries and Sects:

  • Positions the 6th century BC as an age of religious reform globally and in India.
  • Discusses the origin of ascetic movements, influenced by both Vedic and pre-Vedic streams, and notes the classless nature of these movements.
  • Differentiates between Śramaņa and Brahmanical sects based on their attitude to secular life, eligibility for renunciation, scriptural authority, role of women, and emphasis on rituals vs. ethical principles.
  • Details the views of contemporary figures:
    • Pūrṇa Kassapa: Exponent of "no-action" (Akriyāvāda) and "no-cause" (Ahetuvāda), advocating the passive nature of the soul.
    • Pakudha Kachchāyana: Propounder of the Doctrine of Seven Categories (earth, water, fire, air, pleasure, pain, soul), representing Eternalism (Sassatavāda).
    • Ajita Kesakambalin: Founder of Indian Materialism, denying afterlife and emphasizing the corporeal as reality (Tam-jiva-tan-sarira-vāda).
    • Sanjaya Belatthiputta: Known for skepticism and equivocation (Ajñānavāda/Agnosticism), suspending judgment on great metaphysical questions.
    • Mankhali Gosala: Leader of the Ājīvika sect, known for his deterministic theories (Pauttaparihāravāda), the doctrine of purification through transmigration (Saṁsāra-śuddhi), fate, species, nature, and the sixfold classification of humanity. He had a complex relationship with Mahavira, initially associating with him before parting ways.
    • Buddha: Described as Mahavira's junior contemporary, detailing his early life, renunciation, enlightenment, missionary activities, teachings (Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path), and the development of Buddhist literature.
  • Discusses Brahmanical ascetics (Tāvasas, Parivrājakas/Geruyas), their practices, and living arrangements, as well as their beliefs in Vedic rituals, sacrifices, and deities.
  • Details the worship of popular deities like Indra, Brahma, Agni, Surya, and female deities (Siri, Sirimā, Durga).
  • Explains the worship of Lokapālas, Yakshas, Nāgas, and trees, and the presence of miscellaneous deities.
  • Mentions other schools and sects like Kriyāvāda, Akriyāvāda, Ajñānavāda, Vinayavāda, and specific groups like Chandālas, Nishādas, and Pukkusas.

• Chapter VI: Political Conditions and Institutions:

  • Describes North India divided into independent states (16 Mahajanapadas) during Mahavira's time, marking the end of the tribal stage and the rise of organized states.
  • Highlights the conflict between monarchies and republics, the rise of absolutism, and Magadhan imperialism.
  • Lists the sixteen Mahajanapadas according to Jaina and Buddhist texts, noting differences and geographical scope.
  • Details the political significance of states like Anga, Kāśi, Kośala, Vriji (Lichchhavis, Jñātrikas), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Magadha (Bimbisāra, Ajātaśatru), Kuru, Pañchāla, Matsya, Śūrasena, Sindhu Sauvira, Aśvaka, Avanti, Gandhāra, and Kamboja.
  • Discusses the administrative machinery of monarchical states, including the king's absolute power but also his prescribed duties, the role of ministers, officers, and the hierarchical structure.
  • Explores the constitutional framework of republics like the Vrijis and Lichchhavis, including the General Assembly, executive bodies, and the concept of citizenship.
  • Discusses the military organization (four-fold army), warfare tactics (secret weapons), siege warfare, and the development of Pațaliputra as a new capital.
  • Covers taxation, judiciary (multiple tribunals), and the emerging federal structures.

• Chapter VII: Social Conditions:

  • Highlights social changes, including opposition to the caste system by reformers, the distinctiveness of the Sannyasa Āśrama, the growing importance of marriage, the joint-family system, and the rise of proprietary rights.
  • Details the social organization: the rigidity of the Varna system, the elevated status of Kshatriyas, the decline of Sūdras, the emergence of mixed castes, and the intensification of caste superiority feelings.
  • Discusses the roles and status of Kshatriyas (including their intellectual and spiritual pursuits) and Brāhmaṇas (divided into true and worldly).
  • Explains the Vaiśya community, their various occupations (Gahapati, Kutumbika, Sethi), and their economic influence.
  • Addresses the condition of Sūdras and the despised castes (Chandālas, Nishādas, Pukkusas), noting the harsh social stigma attached to Chandālas, though some exceptions existed.
  • Covers mixed castes and the prevalence of slavery, its different categories, and the treatment of slaves.
  • Explains the Aśramas (stages of life: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sannyasa) and their philosophical underpinnings, including the concept of three debts.
  • Details family life, the shift from joint families, and the evolving concept of proprietary rights.
  • Discusses marriage forms (Brāhma, Prājāpatya, Āsura, Gāndharva, Rākshasa), caste and gotra considerations, inter-caste marriage, remarriage, divorce, polygamy, monogamy, and the unique position of courtesans.
  • Describes food habits (vegetarianism vs. non-vegetarianism, liquors), dress and ornaments, furniture, festivals, and games.

• Chapter VIII: Economic Conditions:

  • Characterizes the period as epoch-making for economic history, marked by peace, order, and all-round development of agriculture, industry, and trade.
  • Discusses rural economy: the village as a unit, its organization, arable land, irrigation, and community ownership.
  • Details agricultural practices, crops (rice, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane), and the use of iron implements.
  • Covers arts, crafts, professions, and industries, emphasizing specialization and localization (e.g., carpenter villages).
  • Highlights textiles (spinning, weaving, various fabrics), carpentry, house-building, mining, metallurgy (iron, copper), precious metals industry, ivory work, garland-making, perfumery, pottery (especially North Black Polished Ware), dyeing, and industries related to gums, drugs, chemicals, hunting, fishing, and leather.
  • Explains trade and commerce, trade routes (road and river transport), oversea trade (with Burma, Ceylon, Persia, Babylon), means of conveyance (carts, horses, elephants, ships), and the role of caravans.
  • Discusses the organization of trade and industries into guilds (Śrenis) and their autonomous nature, chiefs (Jetthaka, Mahāsethi), and their relationship with the state.
  • Covers coinage (punch-marked and cast coins, Kārshāpaņas, weight standards, symbols) and prices (generally cheap food, but variations for animals and land).
  • Details fees, salaries, loans, interest rates, and weights and measures.

• Chapter IX: Art and Architecture:

  • Notes the difficulty in providing a detailed account due to the scarcity of surviving specimens, likely due to perishable materials.
  • Highlights the revival of urban life and the construction of fortified cities with moats, ramparts, gateways, and advanced town-planning concepts.
  • Describes secular architecture: town planning (fortifications, palaces, mansions, houses, streets, public buildings) and building architecture (materials like wood, mud, mud-bricks, burnt bricks, and the emerging use of stone).
  • Details religious architecture, including Chaityas and Stupas, their construction, and their association with Mahavira and Buddha.
  • Discusses painting (secular and religious, techniques, subject matter), sculptures (terracottas, common materials, evolution from Indus Valley), and ceramics (North Black Polished Ware).
  • Examines metal objects (ornaments, tools), bone and stone objects, and symbols on coins.
  • Explains the use of miscellaneous objects like seals, stamps, querns, and dice.

• Chapter X: Education, Literature and Sciences:

  • Characterizes the age as a creative epoch for education, literature, and sciences, with the rise of private teachers and the art of writing.
  • Highlights the shift from Sanskrit to Prakrits as literary languages for mass appeal.
  • Discusses aims of education: piety, character formation, personality development, civic/social duties, and preservation of cultural heritage.
  • Explains educational principles (e.g., education for all, stern discipline, Gurukula system) and the revered role of teachers and students.
  • Lists various educational centers (Taxila, Banaras, Vaisali, Rājagriha, etc.) and subjects of study (Vedas, Vedangas, technical sciences).
  • Covers female education, the role of nuns and learned ladies, and the emergence of female teachers.
  • Details the art of writing (Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts, writing materials) and the evolution of language (Sanskrit vs. Prakrits like Ardha-Magadhi and Pali).
  • Discusses the proliferation of religious and philosophical literature, the Jaina Canon (Angas, Upangas, etc.), and the Buddhist Canon (Tripitaka, Nikayas).
  • Examines contemporary philosophical schools (Eternalists, Semi-Eternalists, Extensionists, Eel-wrigglers, Fortuitous-Originists, Consciousness-maintainers, Annihilationists, Nirvanists) and Brahmanical religious practices (sacrifices, popular deities).
  • Covers technical and scientific literature, including Grammar (Pāṇini's Ashtādhyāyi), Metrics (Pingala's Chhandašāstra), Science of Polity (Kautilya and predecessors), Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology (Jaina texts like Suriyapannatti, Chandrapannatti, Ājīvika texts), Science of Medicines (Dhanvantari, medical schools at Taxila), and Science of Engineering (construction of cities, forts, buildings).

V. General Bibliography:

• The book concludes with an extensive bibliography, categorizing original sources (Brahmanical Texts, Jaina Canonical and Non-Canonical Texts, Buddhist Canonical and Non-Canonical Texts) and modern works (English and Vernacular, Journals, Reports, and Memoirs). This bibliography underscores the scholarly depth and comprehensive research undertaken for the book.

In essence, "Lord Mahavira and His Times" provides a detailed, multi-faceted account of a pivotal era in Indian history, contextualizing the life and teachings of Lord Mahavira within the dynamic political, social, economic, and intellectual currents of the 6th century BCE.