Lectures On The Philosophy Of Religion No 08 Materalism

This document is a lecture by Revd. W. Graham Mulligan titled "Lectures On The Philosophy Of Religion No. 8: Materialism." The lecture, published by W. Graham Mulligan, explores the philosophy of materialism. The catalog link points to Jainqq.org, indicating a connection to Jain educational resources, though the content itself appears to be a philosophical discourse on materialism from a broader perspective.

Here's a comprehensive summary of the lecture's content, based on the provided Gujarati text:

The lecture begins by quoting Plato's Theaetetus, highlighting a discussion about the nature of reality. One character describes people who believe that only what can be touched or held in the hand truly exists, implying a materialistic view. Mulligan uses this to introduce materialism as the core subject.

Key themes and sections covered in the lecture:

1. Introduction to Materialism (Pages 1-7):

   • Mulligan defines materialism as the belief that explanations for phenomena should be based on material or physical factors and laws.
   • He distinguishes between theoretical materialism (which holds that only matter is real) and practical materialism (which involves living solely for material pursuits, often neglecting religion).
   • He acknowledges the difficulty in defining materialism precisely, noting that various materialistic schools have differing views, even on the nature of matter itself.
   • He highlights the vast difference between idealism (mind is ultimate reality) and materialism (matter is ultimate reality) and how these can sometimes blur.
   • A consistent feature of materialism is its elevation of matter over what might be perceived through senses or intellect. Materialism often attributes qualities to matter that science might deny (e.g., attributing self-existence and eternality).
   • He notes that materialists often argue that matter possesses life, consciousness, and will, a view seen in both ancient and modern philosophy. Despite disagreements on the specifics of matter, materialists generally agree that matter has attributes beyond our direct experience, often presented as unproven assumptions.
   • Mulligan challenges the claim that materialism is solely based on scientific findings, arguing that science, while making amazing discoveries, does not inherently validate materialism. Instead, he suggests that advancements in physical science have often revealed God's power, knowledge, and goodness.
   • He acknowledges that an understanding of the material world is beneficial for philosophy and theology, and periods of increased physical knowledge have often seen societal success. Ignorance of the material world can be detrimental to understanding philosophy and God.

2. Ancient Materialism (Pages 7-34):

   • Chinese Materialism (Pages 10-13):
     • Mulligan discusses the spread of atheism and materialism in China around 300 BCE.
     • He mentions Confucius, whose philosophy focused on ethics rather than theology, paving the way for materialistic thought.
     • Mencius (Meng Tsu), a commentator on Confucius, is presented as someone who actively combatted materialism in China, believing it harmful.
     • He quotes Yang Chu, a Chinese materialist, who argued that life and death are inevitable, and differences in intelligence and status disappear in death. Yang Chu advocated for maximizing pleasure and enjoyment in life, as there is nothing beyond death. Mulligan contrasts this with biblical descriptions of people "without God and without hope in the world."
   • Indian Materialism (Pages 13-17):
     • He identifies the Charvaka school as the primary example of materialism in India.
     • Charvakas believed that all knowledge comes through the senses. They posited four fundamental elements (earth, water, air, fire), which were eternal and from which everything originated.
     • They believed intelligence arose when these elements combined in the body and perished when they disintegrated. There is no soul without the body.
     • They rejected the supernatural, including God, the afterlife, and the results of good or bad deeds. Heaven was equated with prosperity, and hell with suffering. The Vedas were considered foolish, and religion a means for the ignorant. The primary goal of life was pleasure.
     • Mulligan likens the Charvakas to Epicureans. He briefly touches upon other Indian philosophies like Sankhya and various Darshanas, suggesting that those that describe the universe as a mechanism without mentioning a creator can also be considered materialistic.
   • Greek Materialism (Pages 17-34):
     • Early Greek philosophers believed the fundamental elements of the universe were material and lifeless (similar to Charvaka).
     • The Atomists, Leucippus and Democritus (5th century BCE), are highlighted as key figures. Democritus, in particular, expanded on Leucippus's ideas.
     • Democritus believed the universe consisted of atoms and the void. Atoms were innumerable, indestructible, and eternal, differing only in shape, arrangement, and position, not in quality.
     • The soul was also considered to be made of atoms, finer than others.
     • Mulligan notes Democritus's emphasis on the difficulty of knowing the true nature of things and the relativistic nature of knowledge.
     • He criticizes Democritus's reliance on necessity to explain atomic motion, arguing for a deterministic, unthinking, and purposeless necessity in contrast to a higher mind or purpose.
     • He discusses the self-defeating nature of materialism, as even the knowledge of matter relies on sensory perception, which itself can be doubted.
     • Mulligan points out the contradiction in Democritus's assertion that only atoms and the void are real, yet he claimed to know this based on sensory experience.
     • He mentions the Sophists, who emerged later, and their denial of objective truth, which amplified the problems of materialistic epistemology.
   • Greek Reaction to Materialism (Pages 19-23):
     • Socrates and Plato rejected materialistic views, believing they undermined individual and collective morality.
     • They argued for the primacy of mind and thought in explaining the universe, and the superiority of the soul over the body.
     • Plato proposed that the visible world consists of imperfect copies of eternal Forms, with the ultimate Form being Goodness.
     • Aristotle also countered materialism, positing the existence of four causes (material, formal, efficient, and final) for everything, ultimately leading to a First Cause, which he identified as God. However, Mulligan notes that neither Plato nor Aristotle fully overcame materialism because they believed matter possessed some autonomy, and God was more of a craftsman than an absolute creator.
   • Epicureanism (Pages 23-29):
     • Epicurean philosophy, established by Epicurus, was built upon Democritus's atomism.
     • Epicurus's goal was not truth for its own sake, but the attainment of happiness and freedom from fear (especially fear of God and the afterlife).
     • Mulligan finds some sympathy for this goal given the superstitions of the time but criticizes the underlying philosophy.
     • Epicureanism emphasized atomism, stating that atoms are eternal, indestructible, and conserved in number and power, only changing form. This aligns with some modern scientific views.
     • He poses three critical questions for materialism: the evidence for atoms/energy as primal elements, their self-existence, and why human intellect seeks explanations. Materialism, he argues, fails to answer these.
     • He critiques the materialistic argument that since nothing can come from nothing, matter must be eternal. He calls this a logical fallacy (begging the question).
     • He discusses the Epicurean attempt to explain atomic collision (swerve) as the cause of universe formation, highlighting the challenges and their eventual admission of a slight "will" in atoms.
     • Mulligan concludes that the Epicurean atomistic model, while influential, ultimately fails to explain the origin of the universe and the presence of intention or a guiding will.

3. Modern Materialism (Pages 29-37):

   • The Middle Ages: Mulligan notes a decline in materialism during the Middle Ages due to the dominance of the Church, which focused on theology and philosophy integrated with faith. While there was some mysticism (pantheistic tendencies), it was generally spiritual, not materialistic. Islamic scholars contributed to the study of physical sciences, but both Christians and Muslims largely rejected materialism.
   • The Reformation and Beyond: The 16th-century Reformation challenged Church authority, leading to greater intellectual freedom but also a resurgence of materialistic thought in some regions.
   • English Materialism (Pages 31-34):
     • Francis Bacon, while valuing atomism, was not a materialist himself.
     • Thomas Hobbes (17th century) is presented as a significant English materialist. Hobbes argued that religion originates from fear and anxiety. He saw human intellect as essentially calculating and reducing everything to material interactions. He believed mind and body were inseparable, and the goal of life was pleasure, often deriding concepts like shame, purity, love, and friendship. Mulligan finds Hobbes's philosophy ultimately incomplete and contradictory, as Hobbes himself admitted the limits of material knowledge.
   • French Materialism (Pages 34-37):
     • Materialism flourished in France in the mid-18th century.
     • Julien Offray de La Mettrie, a physician, famously declared himself a materialist, though his views were inconsistent. He saw little difference between humans and animals, attributing it to brain development, and believed mind and body perish together. He prioritized pleasure and mocked moral concepts.
     • Baron d'Holbach, a German expatriate in France, was more systematically materialistic. He denied God's existence, the soul, and the afterlife, positing that only matter and motion exist. He saw religion as stemming from fear and believed his "truth" was only for the educated. He replaced God with "matter and motion." Mulligan points out that d'Holbach's assertions lacked scientific proof and that his explanation of matter as active (in contrast to Newtonian inertia) was problematic. He also criticized d'Holbach's view of morality as mere artifice for personal happiness.

4. Reasons for Materialism's Popularity (Pages 37-40):

   • Resurgence from Idealism: Mulligan suggests materialism can re-emerge from certain idealistic philosophies. He notes how Hegel's philosophy, initially seen as triumphant idealism, fragmented into theistic, pantheistic, and atheistic branches after his death, with some followers leaning towards materialism.
   • Advancements in Physical and Biological Sciences: Discoveries in these fields, particularly the re-emergence of evolutionary theory, have led many to believe that life evolved without the need for a creator. Mulligan plans to discuss evolution further in a subsequent lecture.
   • Connection between Science and Socialism: Karl Marx's materialism, based on Hegel, influenced socialism. Mulligan distinguishes this "dialectical materialism" from the "scientific materialism" discussed in the lecture.
   • Mulligan emphasizes that studying the material realm only reveals matter, its forms, and motion, offering no insight into God, the soul, or free will. These essential aspects of human life remain a mystery from a purely scientific viewpoint.

5. Arguments in Support of Materialism (Pages 40-44):

   • Argument 1: The Quest for Unity: Materialists argue that their philosophy offers the simplest explanation for the unity of the universe. They contend that various phenomena cannot stem from multiple, limiting causes and that a single, ultimate cause is necessary. They reject dualism (like theism) where mind and matter are distinct and argue that idealism is flawed because mind is personal and not the ultimate cause. Mulligan refutes this, stating that matter itself is not singular, and that the observable world comprises diverse elements (stars, stones, heat, light, thought, emotion), which cannot be reduced to a single type. He argues that even physical elements and their constituent parts are divisible and not truly singular. He also points out that matter is always accompanied by force or energy, creating a relationship of cause and effect that materialism struggles to explain without recourse to a mind or external force.
   • Argument 2: Evolutionary Explanation: Materialism, through evolution, claims to provide a naturalistic explanation for all phenomena, relying only on observable facts without postulating supernatural elements. Mulligan calls this argument fallacious, as it begs the question and wrongly assumes that higher complexity can be explained by lower complexity without acknowledging the limits of knowledge. He argues that the observed transformation from inorganic to organic matter, while a growing area of study, does not prove materialism, and that such arguments are based on ignorance rather than knowledge. He points out that the leap from inorganic matter to complex organic beings and consciousness cannot be adequately explained by materialism.

6. Concluding Arguments Against Materialism (Pages 44-51):

   • The Unknowable Nature of Matter: Mulligan argues that materialism's assertion of an independent, underlying matter is unprovable and leads to an unknowable substance, which is an absurd concept. He contends that knowledge of matter is always accompanied by knowledge of mind, making the distinction and separation difficult. Matter, therefore, depends on mind for its comprehension.
   • The Problem of Eternity: Materialism asserts matter's eternality, but this is also unproven and illogical. Mulligan states that everything requires an explanation for its existence, and whether it's God, matter, or something else, it must be self-existent. He challenges the materialist's reason for assuming matter's eternality, noting their inability to provide any evidence beyond avoiding the necessity of a creator.
   • Epistemological Contradictions: Materialists argue that all knowledge comes from sensory experience, yet they assert unprovable claims like the universe's eternality or composition of atoms. These claims cannot be verified through senses.
   • Inability to Explain Force: Materialism fails to adequately explain the nature of force or its relationship with matter. While force is often seen as inherent in matter, this contradicts scientific principles like Newton's laws of motion, which suggest matter is inherently at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
   • The Problem of Life and Consciousness: Materialism cannot explain the origin of life or consciousness. While some theories of spontaneous generation exist, they are not universally accepted or scientifically proven. Mulligan notes that even from a scientific perspective, explaining life requires something beyond mere matter.
   • The greatest objections from a theistic viewpoint:
     • Morality: Human beings possess a sense of morality and the ability to discern right from wrong. Materialism offers no satisfactory explanation for this innate moral sense or the human capacity for choice, which implies the existence of something beyond purely physical laws.
     • Religious Nature of Humanity: Humans are inherently religious beings with a sense of spiritual significance that cannot be fulfilled by materialism. Materialism denies God, the soul, and the afterlife, rendering religion illusory. True materialism, Mulligan argues, can only be established by discarding intellect, religion, and morality, leading to a world that serves no ultimate purpose.

Mulligan concludes by stating that order, life, mind, morality, and religion have not been proven to be mere products of material causes and never will be.

The lecture ends with a list of questions for discussion and reflection, covering the definition of materialism, its relationship with science, ancient and modern forms, the reasons for its popularity, arguments for and against it, and specific philosophical figures and concepts.