Kharvel No Hathigufa Abhilekh - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Gujarati text about the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela:

This article, "Kharvel no Hathigufa Abhilekh" (Kharavela's Hathigumpha Inscription) by Dr. Hasmukh Vyas, published in Anusandhan-54 (Shri Hemchandracharya Special Issue, Part 2), highlights the immense historical significance of the Hathigumpha inscription, calling it the oldest inscription that mentions Jainism.

Significance of Inscriptions: The text begins by emphasizing the crucial role of inscriptions as original sources for history. While various materials like wood, clay, copper, and stone have been used for inscriptions, stone is the most durable and widely utilized. Inscriptions provide precise information about ancient dynasties, their periods of rule and administration, as well as the political, social, religious, and cultural aspects of their times. They are invaluable for reconstructing ancient Indian history.

The Hathigumpha Inscription: The article focuses on the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, located near the famous Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in present-day Odisha, about ten kilometers west of Bhubaneswar. These caves are situated on either side of a road; Udayagiri is on the right (south) and Khandagiri is on the left (north). Among the prominent Udayagiri caves are Svargapuri, Ranigumpha, Ganesagumpha, Jayavijaya, Vyaghra, and Hathigumpha. The Hathigumpha cave itself is a natural rock cave made of red sandstone, measuring 57 x 28 x 12 feet, which was later modified into a hall. The inscription is situated at its entrance and is famously known as the 'Kharavela's Inscription'.

Historical Context and Kharavela: The history of Kalinga after the reign of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (ruled c. 262-238 BCE) is considered uncertain and obscure. It is believed that after the decline of the Mauryan Empire, powerful generals or officials might have established independent kingdoms. One early inscription mentions this dynasty as the Chedi dynasty. The Hathigumpha inscription is the sole epigraph that provides information about Kharavela and his life and administration. In this inscription, Kharavela identifies himself as a descendant of the Vasu dynasty, possibly referring to King Vasu of Chedi. The Chedi kingdom existed on the banks of the Yamuna in the Bundelkhand region during the 6th century BCE. It's speculated that a branch of this dynasty might have migrated to Kalinga. The history of this dynasty can be partially understood through several inscriptions found in Udayagiri, with the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela being of paramount importance. The name 'Kharavela' likely has roots in the word 'Khara' (salty or alkaline), similar to the Gujarati word 'Khar-kharaash'. According to Dr. K.P. Jayaswal, 'Kharavela' is derived from 'Kshara+Vela', meaning "having salty waves," or "one who rules by the sea," as suggested by Dr. Dineshchandra Sarkar.

Udayagiri Caves and the Inscription's Language: Udayagiri hills contain numerous Buddhist and Jain caves, some dating back to before the 3rd century BCE. The article also touches upon the etymology of "Odisha" and the ancient name of Udayagiri, suggesting it might have been "Kumara Parvata" and evolved from "Odra-giri" or "Uddiyana-giri."

The inscription, etched on hard rock at the entrance of Hathigumpha, has suffered damage from time and wear, with a portion in the middle being lost. Despite this, the surviving text holds significant historical value. The article then delves into the inscription's appearance and the various readings and interpretations by scholars.

The inscription is 15.1 x 5.6 feet in size and contains 17 lines written in simple, unadorned prose. Each line has about 90 to 100 characters. It is inscribed in the Brahmi script in a Prakrit language closely resembling Pali. Both sides of the inscription feature two symbols each, which were commonly used in ancient inscriptions (e.g., lotus, circle, swastika).

Scholarly Efforts and Readings: The article traces the history of attempts to decipher and translate the inscription:

Father O. Stirling first discovered the inscription in 1820, creating an incomplete reading with the help of Colonel Mackenzie, published in 1825.
M. Kittoe produced a more accurate reading, which was published with a translation by James Prinsep in his Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum in 1837 (his first translation).
Pandit Bhagvanlal Indraji made a copy on-site in 1885, and his reading was published with a translation during the 6th International Congress of Orientalists in 1886, considered authoritative until 1990.
O. Cunningham also published a lithographic impression in 1877.
Raja Rajendralala Mitra published his reading with a translation in his book Antiquities of Orissa in 1880.
In 1906, under T.H. Bloch's supervision, a more royal impression was made and sent to Dr. Kielhorn.
Ludwig published a summary in 1910, considering the inscription undated.
Dr. John Fleet published two brief notes in the same year, suggesting corrections to the text.
Rakhal Das Banerji examined the dated and controversial readings after a site inspection in 1913.
In 1917, Dr. K.P. Jayaswal published a reading of the inscription.
In 1918, he published a revised reading after another site visit.
In 1919, Dr. Jayaswal and Rakhal Das Banerji jointly conducted a detailed examination of each letter.
Based on photographic reproductions, they prepared a final reading and translation, published in 1927.
Since then, numerous scholars have continued to read, translate, and interpret the inscription.

The Jain Connection: The inscription's primary significance lies in its being the oldest epigraph that explicitly mentions Jainism. It begins with the Jain salutation "Namo Arihantanam" and "Namo Savvasidhanam". In the first line, Kharavela is referred to as "Mahameghavahana", considered a supreme title, meaning "one whose vehicle is the great cloud" or, metaphorically, "Indra" as his vehicle, the elephant (Airavata), is associated with Indra. Dr. V.M. Barua suggests that the inscription's 16th line might contain the word "Indraraja," implying a comparison of Kharavela with Indra. However, Dr. K.P. Jayaswal and Dr. D.C. Sarkar interpret "Indraraja" as "Bhikshuraja," which is considered more appropriate.

Dating the Inscription: Despite being the first Indian inscription detailing a ruler's life and administration, the exact period of Kharavela and the inscription remains a subject of debate among scholars.

Dr. K.P. Jayaswal identifies "Bahaspati-mitra" (Buhaspati-mitra) mentioned in the inscription with Pushyamitra, the general of the last Mauryan king Brihadratha and the first Shunga emperor, who ruled around 184 BCE. Based on this, he dates Kharavela to the 2nd century BCE. He also interprets a part of the 16th line as relating to the "Murya Kala" (Mauryan period), dating Kharavela to 165 years after the Mauryan era. Vincent Smith, Steno Konow, and K.C. Raychaudhuri agree with this view, believing Kharavela defeated Pushyamitra.
However, the reading of the specific passage by Dr. Jayaswal, "Panantariya sathi-vas-sate - Raja-Muriy Kale Vochchhin," is now reinterpreted as referring to expenses for lakhs of coins for Jain monks, repairs to caves, and construction of pillars. Scholars generally accept the reading that the sentence concludes earlier and the mention of the Mauryan period is absent.
Other epigraphists suggest that the inscription is contemporary with or slightly later than the Nanaghat inscriptions and the Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar. Since the Nanaghat inscription is dated to the latter half of the 1st century BCE, the Hathigumpha inscription is likely from before or contemporary with the 1st century BCE, thus placing Kharavela in the 1st century BCE.

Kharavela's Reign and Achievements: This inscription is the only record of Kharavela's life and administration. Unlike typical inscriptions that glorify ancestors, this one focuses solely on Kharavela's personal life and administrative achievements.

Early Life: He ascended the throne at the age of 24, having spent his first 15 years in sports and his next 9 years as crown prince learning various subjects like writing, accounting, conduct, and law, becoming proficient in all.
Administration: The inscription details his administrative activities over 13 years after his coronation.
First Year of Reign: After his coronation in the 244th year (of an unspecified era), he repaired the main gateway of the city, buildings, and the fort destroyed by a storm. He also constructed a lake named Rishikavira and beautiful gardens in the capital, organizing performances of dance, music, and instrumental music for public enjoyment.
Military Campaigns: After prioritizing public welfare in his first year, he embarked on military expeditions in subsequent years. The inscription briefly mentions campaigns in his 2nd, 4th, 8th, and 11th years. These include attacks on Rishika (Musika) city, Rashtrikas and Bhojakas, Gorakhagiri near Rajagriha (Babar mountain in Gaya district), and Piand Nagar (coastal region between Godavari and Krishna rivers) with a large army. These expeditions are interpreted not as territorial conquests but as means of acquiring wealth and demonstrating military power.

Kharavela's Jainism and Religious Tolerance:

The inscription, starting with a salutation to the Arhats, unequivocally identifies Kharavela as a follower of Jainism.
Mention of Arhat worship (9th line), worship of Jina images (12th line), and the construction of shelter caves at Kumari Parvata (Udayagiri) for Arhats to spend their rainy season clearly proves his Jain faith. This is why the inscription is considered the oldest evidence mentioning Jainism.
In the 15th year of his reign, he organized a large assembly of knowledgeable individuals, ascetics, sages, and Arhats from across the country. The purpose of this assembly is not explicitly stated but is speculated to be a council of Arhats.
Despite being a Jain, Kharavela was tolerant towards other religions. His coronation in the 24th year suggests Vedic practices. He also made donations to Brahmins and built temples for other religions.
While Jainism is generally not considered a state-sponsored religion like Buddhism, this inscription provides evidence to the contrary, suggesting that Jainism was indeed Kharavela's state religion.
A significant revelation from this inscription is that the practice of making and worshipping Jina images began around 600-700 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. However, this inscription indicates that the statue of Kalingajina (the first Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva), which was taken away by the Nanda kings, was recovered by Kharavela and re-established in Rajagriha (12th line). This irrefutably proves that the worship of Jain images was prevalent before the 3rd century BCE (Nanda period) and even earlier.

Conclusion: Based on the detailed analysis, it can be unequivocally stated that Kharavela was a ruler proficient in various arts and sciences, a skilled general, a brave warrior, and a capable, popular, and successful administrator. The article concludes by stating that this is a brief overview of the Hathigumpha inscription and that its full significance can only be understood through a detailed explanation of each line and word in its historical and cultural context.

The article also lists several reference books supporting its content.