Kautilya On War - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of R.P. Kangle's "Kautilya on War" based on the provided text, focusing on the principles and practices of warfare as described in the Kautiliya Arthashastra:

Kautilya's Arthashastra on Warfare: A Comprehensive Approach to Foreign Policy and Military Expeditions

R.P. Kangle's analysis of Kautilya's Arthashastra reveals a sophisticated and multifaceted approach to warfare, viewing it as a crucial instrument of foreign policy. The ultimate objective for a ruler, according to Kautilya, is conquest and the establishment of suzerainty over the entire Indian subcontinent (cakravarti-ksetra). To achieve this, offensive warfare is often a necessary tool, and the text meticulously details how to conduct successful military expeditions. Simultaneously, it offers guidance to those facing aggression on how to defend themselves.

The Decision to Wage War:

Kautilya emphasizes that war is typically the culmination of a hostile policy (vigraha) towards another state. However, it can also be initiated even against a state with which a peace treaty (samdhi) is in effect, under specific circumstances. A military expedition, or yāna, against an enemy marks the commencement of aggressive war.

Before embarking on a military campaign, Kautilya advises careful consideration of several critical factors:

Relative Strength: A thorough assessment of the strength of both parties involved is paramount.
Terrain: The nature of the battlefield significantly influences the outcome.
Season: The timing of the campaign in relation to climatic conditions is crucial.

A state's strength is defined by three key elements:

Prabhavaśakti: Resources, including armed forces and the financial means to sustain them.
Utsāhaśakti: The personal energy and drive of the ruler.
Mantraśakti: The capacity for sound decision-making through deliberation, coupled with diplomatic skill.

A state contemplating war must ensure its superiority, particularly in mantraśakti. Furthermore, a prudent ruler must calculate potential gains against likely losses and expenses, initiating a campaign only when expected gains substantially outweigh the costs.

Preparations and Precautions:

Before launching an expedition, preventing internal unrest is a primary concern. Kautilya dedicates significant attention to identifying and mitigating threats within the kingdom while the ruler is away. This includes preventing revolts by state dignitaries or their collaboration with external enemies. It is recommended to leave a substantial portion of the armed forces (one-third or one-fourth) behind for internal security and to appoint a regent (śūnyapāla) to oversee the state's administration.

The mobilization and equipment of troops are detailed. The ancient Indian army comprised four main divisions: elephants, chariots, cavalry, and infantry. Additionally, troops could be categorized by their origin: hereditary, hired, allied, captured enemy troops, and forest troops. The general principle is to raise forces capable of easily overcoming the enemy's existing strength. The Arthashastra enumerates a vast array of weapons, armors, and siege machines (yantras), along with accouterments for animals and chariots.

Emphasis is placed on the training and discipline of the armed forces. Superintendents (adhyakṣas) are responsible for the care, training, and equipment of each troop type. Regular drills and inspections by the ruler himself are mandated, even during peacetime, to maintain the army's fighting capabilities.

Troop Loyalty and Command Structure:

Ensuring the loyalty of the troops is crucial. Spies, secret agents, and trusted commanders are tasked with monitoring for any signs of disaffection. Deserters are to be imprisoned. While the Senapati is generally the highest army officer, Kautilya's text sometimes presents a hierarchical confusion, with a senapati appearing subordinate to a nayaka, possibly indicating a distinction between a commander-in-chief and junior officers.

The Base Camp and Expedition Logistics:

Upon completing preparations, the ruler is advised to establish a fortified base camp with ramparts and moats. This camp, intended for prolonged stays, is also to accommodate traders and women, suggesting a provision for logistical support and morale.

Seasons and Provisions:

The selection of appropriate seasons for campaigns is crucial, with specific months recommended for long, short, and medium-duration expeditions, often factoring in the ability to utilize enemy crops. While avoiding the rainy season for direct combat is generally advised, Kautilya suggests campaigning during rains if conditions favor one's own troops and disadvantage the enemy. Camping on enemy territory during monsoons is also proposed if a campaign extends beyond the dry season.

The expedition proceeds from the base camp, with prior calculation of halts and available resources (fodder, fuel, water) to determine temporary camp sites. A camp superintendent (prasāstra) marches ahead with laborers to set up these temporary camps. Provisions and equipment are carried with the troops, though living off the land is also considered. During the march, the nāyaka leads, the king is in the middle, and the senapati brings up the rear.

The Ruler's Position and Battle Array (Vyūha):

The king is expected to be personally present with the army. However, his position is strategic: in the center of the fortified camp, in the middle during the march, and within a well-guarded section of the battle-array, often with reserves. A double of the king is sometimes placed at the front to mislead the enemy.

The army is arranged in formations called vyūhas, which typically include a center, two flanks, and two wings. The text details various vyūhas and the composition of fighting units, often based on elephants or chariots, supported by cavalry and infantry. Reserves are stationed behind the main fighting force, where the king also remains.

Medical Support and Morale:

Physicians and surgeons, along with their medical supplies, are positioned behind the fighting troops to treat the wounded. Women are also present to provide food and drink and to encourage the soldiers.

Pre-Battle Rituals and Motivations:

On the eve of battle, the king is advised to fast, offer sacrifices, and spend the night with his weapons. Before the fight, he should address the troops, emphasizing their shared status as servants of the state. Astrologers are to make prophecies of victory, and bards are to extol the troops' heroism. The senapati announces rewards for acts of bravery, including financial incentives for killing enemy commanders. Soldiers are also promised the right to keep captured spoils and receive a double wage as gratuity.

Rules of Engagement (Dharmayuddha):

Kautilya outlines specific rules of engagement, which are considered part of "righteous war" (dharmayuddha). During combat, safety is to be extended to those who have fallen, surrendered, shown signs of submission (loose hair, discarded weapons), are overcome by fear, or are non-combatants.

Types of Warfare:

Kautilya categorizes war into three main types:

Prakāśa (Open War): Fighting at a designated time and place, often preceded by formal notice (dharmistha, righteous). The chosen site should offer a strategic advantage, such as a fortified rear for retreat.
Kūṭayuddha (Covert/Deceptive War): Employed when weaker or facing unfavorable conditions. This involves misleading the enemy, attacking when they are off guard, feigning retreats, dividing enemy ranks, and using surprise attacks, including night assaults and attacking with the sun or wind against the enemy. Kangle notes that these tactics are universally accepted battlefield maneuvers.
Tūsnimyuddha (Silent War/Assassination): This involves killing or assassinating high-ranking enemy officers or the enemy king through secret agents, often using poison, particularly when the enemy is aggressive and unwilling to negotiate peace. This is recommended for a weaker king facing a superior aggressor.

Kautilya also refers to other forms of fighting based on terrain (sthalayuddha - land, nimpayuddha - water) and strategic positions (khana kayuddha - entrenched, akasayuddha - open). There is no mention of naval warfare in the conventional sense.

Diplomacy (Mantrayuddha):

Before resorting to silent war, a weak king is advised to engage in diplomacy (mantrayuddha). This involves offering peace terms through an ambassador, potentially including the surrender of troops, treasury, or land, and even the entire kingdom except the capital. If these are refused, appeals can be made to the aggressor's sense of dharma and artha, or threats of collective action by other kings to maintain the balance of power can be employed.

Siege Warfare:

Kautilya details siege warfare, including stratagems to subvert enemy loyalty, lure the enemy king out, smuggle troops in, or entice the garrison out. If these fail, forts can be stormed, with recommendations for incendiary tactics.

Types of Conquerors and the Aims of War:

Conquest can result in annexation or vassal submission. Kautilya identifies three types of conquerors:

Dharmavijayin (Righteous Conqueror): Content with submission and acceptance of suzerainty, without annexation.
Lobhavijayin (Greedy Conqueror): Seeks land and money, and can be persuaded to desist from annexation through monetary offers.
Asuravijayin (Demoniac Conqueror): Aims to seize land, money, sons, and wives of the conquered, and is bent on killing the kings. This type invariably annexes conquered territories.

Relevance and Conclusion:

Kautilya's teachings on war provide a comprehensive overview of ancient Indian military strategy and practice. While the details of troop types and equipment may be dated, the underlying principles remain highly relevant. These include the necessity of careful consideration of all factors before offensive war, thorough preparation and precautions, the importance of tactics for misleading the enemy, and the significant role of diplomacy, especially in defensive situations. Kangle suggests that Kautilya's work, with its exhaustive principles, could be more beneficial to military leaders than less comprehensive texts like Sun Tzu's "The Art of War."