Karmvad Ek Vishleshatmak Adhyayan

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Karmvad Ek Vishleshatmak Adhyayan" by Devendramuni Shastri, focusing on the concepts of karma within Indian philosophy, particularly from a Jain perspective:

Introduction: The Significance of Indian Philosophy and Karma

The text begins by emphasizing India as the birthplace of numerous philosophical schools, including Nyaya, Sankhya, Vedanta, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, Buddhism, and Jainism. It highlights that Indian philosophy is fundamentally a philosophy of life, deeply engaged with profound questions about existence. Central to this inquiry is the concept of karma, which is presented as the backbone of Indian civilization and religion. The author cites Dr. Hazariprasad Dwivedi and Keith, who underscore the uniqueness and centrality of the theory of karma and its fruits in India, setting it apart from other cultures.

Jain Perspective on Karma: A Synthesis of Causes

The Jain viewpoint on karma is presented as a sophisticated understanding that acknowledges multiple contributing factors to the diversity of the universe. While karma is considered the primary cause, factors like time (kala), nature (swabhava), destiny (niyati), and individual effort (purushartha) are also recognized as important. The Jain philosophy stresses that attributing all outcomes to a single cause is incomplete. Instead, a harmonious integration of these factors is crucial.

A key tenet is that the true cause of happiness and sorrow lies within oneself, rather than being solely dependent on external forces. The text emphasizes that attributing outcomes to either divine will (daiva), karma, fate, or effort alone is an incomplete perspective. True fulfillment arises from the correct synthesis of divine will (in the sense of cosmic order or the results of past actions) and human endeavor.

Rejection of a Creator God and Emphasis on Karma

Jainism distinctly rejects the notion of an omnipotent God or Brahma as the creator, preserver, or destroyer of the universe. The existence of a creator deity is deemed unnecessary and illogical. Instead, the Jain philosophy posits that the cycle of birth, aging, and death is governed by karma and other causal factors. Furthermore, it asserts that purely material elements (bhuta) cannot produce consciousness-based qualities like knowledge, happiness, or sorrow. The existence of a conscious entity (chetan tattva) is considered essential and unavoidable. The inability of the inert (murt-jad) to create the conscious (amurt-chetan) is a fundamental argument for the existence of a soul and the role of karma.

Historical Review of Karma in Vedic Tradition

The text then delves into a historical examination of karma's evolution in the Vedic tradition:

• Vedic Era (Samhita and Brahmana Periods): There are differing views on whether the earliest Vedic texts (Samhitas) explicitly discussed karma. Some scholars believe they lacked a detailed exposition of karma, while others argue that the Rishis of the Vedic period were knowledgeable about it.

  • Argument for lack of explicit karma: This view suggests that Vedic Rishis, while observing the diversity of life, sought explanations in the external world rather than within. Their focus was on nature deities and rituals (yajna). Prayers and offerings were made to deities for prosperity and victory. The concept of yajna (sacrifice) gradually evolved.
  • Argument for implicit karma: This view points to Vedic hymns that use terms like "Shubhaspatih" (protector of good deeds), "Dhiyasaptih" (protector of good actions), "Vicharshani" and "Vishvacharsani" (witnesses of good and bad deeds), and "Vishvasya Karmano Dharta" (supporter of all actions) as attributes of deities. It suggests that performing good deeds leads to immortality, that souls are reborn according to their actions, and that individuals are driven to sin by past misdeeds. The text also mentions the concept of stored (sanchit) and allotted (prarabhdha) karma and the paths of Devayana and Pitriyana based on the quality of actions. It even notes the possibility of experiencing the karma of others, though primarily one experiences their own.

• Aranyakas and Upanishads: In these periods, the emphasis on deities and rituals began to wane, giving rise to new ideas. While early Vedic literature might have lacked explicit karma discussions, the Aranyakas and Upanishads introduce the concept of adrishta (unseen) karma. However, even the Upanishads are not unanimous in identifying karma as the sole cause of cosmic diversity. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad lists time, nature, destiny, chance, elements, and the soul as causes, not karma.

• The Dominance of Devavada and Yagyavada: The text concludes that while karma-related beliefs were present in the Vedas, their analysis became secondary due to the pervasive influence of deity worship (devavada) and ritualistic practices (yagyavada). The Vedic Samhitas do not fully explain what karma is, how it binds, or how one achieves liberation. The primary focus was on yajna (sacrifice) as the means to achieve results. As the importance of karma grew, proponents attempted to integrate it with ritual and deity worship, eventually attributing all fruits to yajna. This philosophical development led to Mimamsa philosophy.

• The Concept of "Apurva" and "Adrishta": To explain how temporary rituals could yield lasting results, the Mimamsa school introduced the concept of "Apurva" – an unseen force or merit generated by rituals. The Vaisheshika school considered "Adrishta" as a quality with two forms: dharma (merit) and adharma (demerit). The Nyaya school saw these as "samskaras" (impressions) left on the soul by good and bad deeds. These impressions, or Adrishta, are considered qualities of the soul that persist until their fruits are experienced, with the fruition mediated by God. The Sankhya school views karma as a modification of Prakriti (primordial matter), with impressions on Prakriti from higher and lower tendencies leading to karmic fruits. This is how karma was developed within the Vedic tradition.

Karma in Buddhism

The text then shifts to Buddhism, another major karma-centric tradition. Buddhism also contemplates the unseen power of karma, attributing the diversity of beings to karmic influences. Karma originates from attachment (raga), aversion (dvesha), and delusion (moha). Through these afflictions, beings perform actions with mind, speech, and body, which in turn generate more attachment, aversion, and delusion, perpetuating the endless cycle of existence.

The text mentions the concept of "vasana" (inclination or tendency) and "avijnapti" (unmanifested action) in Buddhist philosophy. Vasana refers to the impressions generated by mental actions, while avijnapti refers to those generated by speech and body. The Vijnanavada school uses the term "vasana" for all actions, stating it is the root cause, superseding even concepts of God or nature. Even if God is seen as a judge, vasana is necessary for actions to occur. The Shunyavada view equates vasana with primordial ignorance.

The Unique Jain Conception of Karma

The text highlights the exceptionally scientific and unique nature of the Jain theory of karma, which is unparalleled in any other Indian tradition.

• Meaning of Karma: The literal meaning of karma is action, activity, or movement. However, in Jainism, it transcends mere physical actions. Panini defines karma as what is most desired by the doer. The Vaisheshika school defines it as a quality residing in a substance, devoid of other qualities, and causing conjunction or disjunction without the need for another cause. The Sankhya school uses it in the sense of samskara. The Bhagavad Gita refers to active engagement as karma. Nyaya classifies karma into five types of motion. Mimamsa considers rituals like sacrifices as karma. Buddhism sees karma as the cause of diversity, in the form of vasana.

• Jain Distinction: Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma: Jainism fundamentally distinguishes between two types of karma:

  • Bhavakarma: These are the psychological states of attachment (raga), aversion (dvesha), and other passions (kashaya). These are internal, subjective states.
  • Dravyakarma: This refers to the karmic matter (pudgala) that is subtle, physical substance that binds to the soul due to bhavakarma. These are objective, material entities.

• The Pudgala Nature of Karma: The core of the Jain theory is that karma is pudgala – subtle, material particles. This is a crucial distinction from other philosophies that view karma as a form of subtle energy, impression, or spiritual merit.

  • Argument for Pudgala Nature: The text argues that if karma were an inherent quality of the soul, it could not be the cause of bondage, dependence, and suffering, as qualities do not negate themselves. Since karma causes these negative states, it must be something external to the soul. Just as chains bind a person, wine intoxicates, and chloroform renders unconscious, karma, being a subtle physical substance, binds the soul.
  • Subtlety and Pervasiveness: While external bonds like chains are weak, karmic particles are subtle, potent, and intimately adhere to the soul, exerting a profound internal influence.
  • Karma Vargana: The pudgala atoms that transform into karma are called "karma vargana," and those that form the body are "naukama vargana." The universe is filled with both. Since the body is material, and karma is its cause, karma must also be material. The material cause of a material effect is material.

• Samskara vs. Pudgala: The text contrasts the Jain view with others:

  • Vedanta: Uses terms like Maya, Avidya, and Prakriti.
  • Mimamsa: Uses "Apurva."
  • Buddhism: Uses "Vasana" and "Avijnapti."
  • Sankhya: Uses "Aashaya."
  • Nyaya-Vaisheshika: Uses "Adrishta," "Samskara," and "Dharmadharma."
  • Chavaka: Rejects karma as it denies the existence of the soul.

• The Interplay of Soul and Karma: The Jain view emphasizes that the soul (jiva) is conscious and formless, while karma is material and inert. However, in the state of bondage, the soul and karma are inextricably intertwined.

  • Bhavakarma and Dravyakarma as Cause and Effect: Bhavakarma (passions) causes the soul to attract pudgala atoms (dravyakarma), and the presence of dravyakarma reinforces bhavakarma. This cycle is beginningless.
  • The Mixture: The formation of karma involves a mixture of inert and conscious elements. Both dravyakarma and bhavakarma contain both soul and karmic matter. In dravyakarma, the material aspect is dominant, while in bhavakarma, the spiritual aspect is dominant.
  • The Essence of Bondage: The interaction and resultant bondage occur in the mixed state of the soul and karmic matter. The soul in this mixed state is the worldly soul (sansari atma), which is a combination of the conscious soul (chetanansh) and the inert karmic matter (jadansh). When karma is separated from the soul, it becomes pure pudgala.

• Three States of Existence: Deep contemplation reveals three states:

  1. Pure Soul: The liberated soul (mukta atma) in its pristine, conscious state.
  2. Pure Pudgala: Matter in its unadulterated form.
  3. Mixture of Soul and Pudgala: The worldly soul, which is a combination of the conscious soul and karmic matter.

• Karma and the Worldly Soul: The capacity to perform and experience karma is only with the worldly soul. The liberated soul is free from karma. The worldly soul is a mixture, and its consciousness is the jiva (soul), while its inert aspect is karma. These aspects are not experientially separable in worldly existence, only in liberation. A worldly soul is always associated with karma; when freed, it becomes a liberated soul.

In conclusion, the book "Karmvad Ek Vishleshatmak Adhyayan" presents a thorough analysis of the concept of karma, highlighting the unique and scientific perspective of Jainism, which posits karma as a subtle, material substance (pudgala) that binds the soul, leading to the cycle of birth and death. This understanding is contrasted with other Indian philosophical traditions and their diverse interpretations of karma.