Karma

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided pages from Virchand R. Gandhi's "Karma," focusing on the Jain perspective:

The text begins by placing the doctrine of Karma within the broader context of Hindu philosophical systems. It traces the evolution of "Karma" from its early Vedic roots, where it signified "the path of works" (Karma-mārga) involving rituals, sacrifices, and duties to nature gods and ancestors. This is contrasted with the "path of knowledge" (Jñana-mārga) emphasized in later texts like the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The Dharma-śāstras further detail various ceremonials and duties under the umbrella of Karma, and the Vedanta philosophy specifically differentiates Karma-mārga from Jñana-mārga.

The author then uses the example of the Greek philosophical term "Logos" to illustrate how words and concepts evolve in meaning with cultural and civilizational advancement. He highlights Heraclitus's use of "Logos" to represent the underlying reason or principle of change in the world, which operates according to definite relations and a consistent succession, referred to as Destiny, Order, or Reason. The Stoics expanded on this, viewing the universe as a single, interconnected living entity powered by a divine primitive force, or Logos, which also constituted the rational part of souls. Christian theology, influenced by the Stoics, adopted the Logos concept, often personified, as seen in Origen's teachings about the eternal Son, the Logos, as God's world-thoughts. This linguistic analysis serves to underscore the author's intention to present the Jain understanding of Karma.

The core of the provided text then shifts to defining Karma from the Jaina philosophical viewpoint. A fundamental tenet of Jainism, as presented here, is that the Cosmos (reality) is eternal, without beginning or end. It did not arise from nothing and will never be annihilated. Substance, in its abstract sense, is permanent, while its activities are in constant flux. Reality, when understood as the highest generalized idea of existence (Being or Esse), is indivisible and singular. However, when "reality" refers to concrete substances with fundamentally different types of activities (not just variations in degree), the universe is divided into two grand categories: the animate world and the inanimate world.

The inanimate world, in Jainism, comprises matter, two types of ether (Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya), and space. The animate world is composed of an infinite number of living beings, each functioning as a center of complex forces. Time is described as a substance only figuratively, essentially representing a generalized mode of thought concerning the activities of beings and things.

Crucially, the Jaina cosmos is not seen as a random collection of substances brought together by an external creator. Instead, it is a self-governing system governed by inherent laws. These laws are not commands from an authority but rather propositions that express the constant and regular order of phenomena or the consistent mode of action of things and beings. These laws are followed precisely and without exception, given specific circumstances.

This leads to the assertion that Jainism is not a theistic system in the sense of believing in a god as the Creator and Ruler of the universe. However, Jainism does acknowledge a highest being, which is personal and possesses qualities, unlike the impersonal, qualityless Brahma of Vedanta. Every living being, from the smallest to the most evolved, is characterized by innumerable activities that determine its stage of development. These activities include biological functions like nourishment, growth, decay, and the experience of natural influences. Despite encountering uncongenial circumstances, living beings, over time, demonstrate a remarkable capacity for adaptation.