Jinasena And His Political Philosophy - Book Summary

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The text, "Jinasena and his Political Philosophy" by Rajmal Jain, focuses on the significant contributions of the Jain poet-Acharya Jinasena to the understanding of Jain political thought, primarily through his monumental work, the Adipurana. While Jinasena was a mendicant, the Adipurana, completed by his disciple Gunabhadracharya, is an encyclopedic text that also offers a detailed and systematic account of Jain political theory.

Key Aspects of Jinasena's Political Philosophy:

Rejection of a Creator God and Divine Right of Kings: A central tenet of Jinasena's philosophy, and indeed Jainism, is the absence of a creator God. The universe and its phenomena are attributed to the agency of souls and karmas. Consequently, the theory of divine origin for kingship is rejected. Even the first king, Rishabhadeva (Adi-Natha), was a man of genius and a worldly person (saragi) when he was chosen as king by his people, not a divine being. His later status as a Tirthankara came after renunciation and penance. The Kulakaras (patriarchs) who preceded Rishabhadeva were also considered eminent individuals, not divine figures.
Cosmic Evolution and the Theory of Time Cycles: Jainism posits a rational explanation for the universe's continuity through its concept of time. The practical aspect of time is divided into two cycles: Utsarpini (evolutionary) and Avasarpini (retrograde). The Avasarpini cycle, over immense periods, sees a decline in human happiness, age, and strength, progressing through six stages from bliss-bliss to sorrow-sorrow. The Adipurana begins its account of social and political evolution from the earliest stages of the time cycle, which is characterized by extreme happiness and ease.
The Golden Age and the Decline of the Bhogabhumi: In the initial stages of the time cycle (Sukhamā-Sukhamā and Sukhamā), humans lived in a state of pristine purity and idyllic happiness, with their needs met by wish-fulfilling trees (Kalpavṛkṣas). This period is described as the Bhogabhumi (land of enjoyment). However, as the trees' powers diminished, human needs increased, marking the transition towards the Karmabhumi (land of action).
Emergence of Civil Society and the Kulakaras: As difficulties increased, a line of fourteen Kulakaras (founders of families or clans) emerged. These were not kings but pre-eminent individuals who guided people, providing advice on practical matters like the utility of the sun and moon, avoiding dangerous animals, domesticating cows, and later, devising methods for travel and basic medicine. This period saw the beginnings of pastoral life and the management of resources.
Transition to Agricultural Society and the Six Means of Livelihood: During the time of the fourteenth Kulakara, Nabhiraja, the decline of the Bhogabhumi was complete. His son, Rishabhadeva, faced with people's unmet needs, introduced six means of livelihood: Asi (use of sword, for protection), Masi (writing, for accounts), Krși (agriculture), Vanijya (commerce), Vidya (arts and teaching), and Silpa (handicraft). This marked the dawn of an agricultural and vocational society, with Rishabhadeva's symbol being the bullock.
Establishment of Political State and Elective Kingship: The development of professions and land ownership led to conflicts. People, seeking resolution, approached Nabhiraja and subsequently Rishabhadeva, requesting him to become their king. Rishabhadeva consented, and the first king was consecrated by Indra. Jinasena emphasizes that without a king, "Matsyanyaya" (the law of the fish) would prevail, where the strong oppress the weak. The text suggests this led to a voluntary social contract, establishing elective kingship, which the author considers factual and not presumptive like the theories of Western philosophers.
Evolution of Punishment: Rishabhadeva's reign saw the continuation of three earlier forms of punishment: verbal admonishments ("Alas," "Do not," "Shame on you"). His successor, Bharata, introduced more severe punishments like imprisonment (bandhana) and death sentences (vadha) as offenses increased, demonstrating a systematic evolution of punishment in response to the intensity and frequency of crimes.
Creation of Social Classes: While Jainism doesn't inherently favor the caste system, Jinasena, possibly to address contemporary Brahmanical influence or due to interpolations, describes the creation of four social classes. Rishabhadeva is credited with initiating the Kṣatriya (warrior), Vaiśya (trading), and Śudra (service) classes. His son, Bharata, after his world conquest, created the Brāhmaṇa class through a self-devised test, focusing on duties like receiving gifts, worship, and learning. Notably, the Brāhmaṇas were the last class to be created, with Kṣatriyas being the first.
Principles of Taxation: The first king, Rishabhadeva, advocated a principle of taxation akin to a cowherd milking a cow – gentle and considerate of the subject's well-being. Just as a cowherd cares for his cattle, the king should nurture and protect his subjects in return for taxes, demonstrating responsibility and service.
Organization of the State: Rishabhadeva established Ayodhya as his capital and organized his kingdom by setting up villages, towns, ports, and forts. He demarcated regions and appointed four Maha Māndalikas (governors) to oversee subordinate vassals, laying the groundwork for civil and military administration.
World-Ruler (Cakravartin) and Justification for Conquest: Jinasena extensively details Bharata's world conquest, which is recognized even in non-Jain Puranas as the origin of the name "Bhārata" for India. Jinasena justifies this conquest by stating that it is achieved through meritorious actions (punya), the same factor that elevates one to the status of a Tirthankara.
Duties of a King: In his final canto, Jinasena outlines five duties of a king, as articulated by Bharata:
1. Kulānupālana (Preservation of the race/lineage): Ensuring purity by being cautious in accepting offerings from others.
2. Matiyānupālana (Preservation of understanding): Gaining true knowledge by destroying false knowledge (mithyā-jnāna).
3. Ātmānupālana (Preservation of self): Resorting to Dharma for protection from troubles, as kingship itself is inherently problematic.
4. Prajānupālana (Protection of subjects): The fundamental duty, performed with mild punishment (anurūpa-danda).
5. Samānjasa (Propriety): Protecting the virtuous (sista) and controlling the wicked (nigraha), without sparing even princes.
The Ideal King: Bharata is presented as the embodiment of virtue, a Rājarși (royal sage), pious, and emulated by his subjects.

In conclusion, the text highlights that Jinasena's Adipurana provides a detailed and exhaustive account of Jain polity, tracing political development from prehistoric times to organized states. Its unique contribution lies in its denial of a creator God, leading to the rejection of the divine right of kings, and its emphasis on a scientific, rational, and evolutionary approach to understanding the universe and human society. Jinasena's political philosophy is characterized by its scientific and logical underpinnings, aligning with modern scientific thought in its denial of supernatural creation.