Jambudwip Aur Adhunik Bhaugolik Manyato Ka Tulnatmak Vivechan - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, focusing on the comparison of Jambu-dvipa with modern geographical concepts:

This text, "Jambudwip aur Adhunik Bhaugolik Manyato ka Tulnatmak Vivechan" by Harindrabhushan Jain, undertakes a comparative analysis of the Jain concept of Jambu-dvipa with various ancient and modern geographical understandings.

1. Jambu-dvipa according to Vedic Beliefs:

Limited Geographical Knowledge: Vedic people's geographical understanding was confined to the Ganga plain extending to the Brahmaputra river in the east, the Hindu Kush mountains in the northwest, the Indus river in the west, the Himalayas in the north, and the Vindhya range in the south.
"Mahameru" and the North Pole: The Taittiriya Aranyaka mentions "Mahameru" perpetually circled by the sun. Professor Baldev Upadhyay interprets this as a reference to the North Pole.
Sea Familiarity: While the Vedas mention the sea, Western scholars believe Vedic people were unfamiliar with it. Indian scholars, however, argue that Aryans were well-acquainted with the sea, using sea-derived products and undertaking long voyages on large ships.
"Uttar Kuru" and "Uttar Madra": The Aitareya Brahmana divides the "Arya Mandala" into five parts, with Uttar Kuru and Uttar Madra located beyond the northern Himalayas.

2. Jambu-dvipa according to Ramayana and Mahabharata:

Ramayania Geography: The Valmiki Ramayana, particularly in the Kishkindha Kanda, describes the entire earth as messengers are dispatched in all directions to search for Sita. Valmiki was familiar with Jambu-dvipa, Meru, Himavan, and Uttar Kuru.
- The Ramayana details various rivers, continents, seas, and mountains, extending eastward to inaccessible regions and westward to Varuna Loka.
- The description of Uttar Kuru in the Ramayana, particularly its description as a land of abundance and pleasure, closely resembles the Jain concept of bhogabhumi (land of enjoyment).
Mahabharata Geography: The Mahabharata places Jambu-dvipa in the center of the earth, with Mount Meru to its east. To the north of Meru lie Bhadravarsha, Ilavarsha, and Uttar Kuru, followed by mountains like Nila and Shveta, and then Airavata-varsha. To the south of Meru are Ketumalavarsha and Jambu-dvipa, followed by Nishadha, Hemakuta, Himavat, and Bharatavarsha. This geography aligns closely with the Jain tradition.

3. Jambu-dvipa according to Puranic Beliefs:

Seven Islands and Seas: Most Hindu Puranas describe the Earth as having seven islands and seven seas, encircling each other. Jambu-dvipa is central, surrounded by the Lava-samudra (salt sea).
Puranic Descriptions: The Puranas detail various islands, seas, mountains, and rivers. While there's general agreement on Jambu-dvipa's central position and circular shape (100,000 yojanas in diameter), the names and positions of other continents and oceans vary across different Puranas.
Cosmology: The Puranic cosmology divides the universe into Adholoka (lower world), Madhyaloka (middle world), and Urdhvaloka (upper world), with Meru at the center of the Madhyaloka.
Jambu-dvipa's Features: Jambu-dvipa is characterized by seven regions (Bharat, Haimavat, Hari, Videha, Ramya, Hairanyavat, and Airavat), six major mountains (Kulachalas like Himavan, Mahahimavan, Nishadha, Nila, Rukmi, and Shikharin), and fourteen rivers. It also includes two bhogabhumi (lands of enjoyment) – Devakuru and Uttar-kuru.

4. Jambu-dvipa according to Jain Beliefs:

Comprehensive Cosmology: Jain traditions, particularly Jain Puranas and texts like Tattvartha Sutra and Triloka Prajnapti, provide a detailed description of the entire universe.
Three Worlds: The universe is divided into Adholoka, Madhyaloka, and Urdhvaloka. Madhyaloka contains Jambu-dvipa, surrounded by the Lava-samudra.
Jambu-dvipa's Structure: Jambu-dvipa is a circular continent with a diameter of 100,000 yojanas. At its center stands Mount Meru, 140,000 yojanas high.
Surrounding Continents: Surrounding Jambu-dvipa are the Dhatakikhanda continent and the Kalodadhi sea, followed by Pushkaravaradvipa and Pushkaravar-samudra.
Human Realm: Jambu-dvipa, Dhatakikhanda, and Pushkarardha are considered the "human realms" (Manushya-kshetra).
Regions and Mountains: Jambu-dvipa is divided into seven regions (Bharat, Haimavat, Hari, Videha, Ramya, Hairanyavat, and Airavat). The six kulachala mountains divide these regions.
Bhogabhumi: Devakuru and Uttar-kuru are bhogabhumi. Haimavat, Hari, Ramya, and Hairanyavat are also considered partially bhogabhumi. Bharat, Airavat, and Videha are karmabhumi (lands of action).

5. Comparative Analysis of Jambu-dvipa with Ancient and Modern Geography:

Saptadvipa (Seven Islands): Puranic descriptions of seven islands and seas differ from Jain and Vedic accounts. The names of islands like Jambu, Kraunch, and Pushkara appear in both Jain and Vedic traditions, though their precise identifications differ.
Water Tastes: Both Vedic and Jain traditions classify seas based on the taste of their water (e.g., salty, sweet). Vishnu Purana mentions "Dadhi" (curd sea), while Jain tradition uses "Shubhodaka" (auspicious water).
Manushyaloka and Island Boundaries: The concept of the human realm's boundary in Vedic beliefs seems to align with the Pushkarardha in Jain tradition. The Vedic Saptadvipa concept appears to be incorporated within the Jain Dhai Dvipa (2.5 continents).
Mount Meru:
- Jain Tradition: Meru is the navel of Jambu-dvipa, with specific dimensions and proportions. It is adorned with four forests and sixteen Chaityalayas. Its color is golden, and its shape is compared to a lotus seedcup or a bell.
- Ancient Beliefs: While the Vedas don't mention Meru, it's present in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Buddhist scriptures, with similar descriptions of its central role. Persian, Greek, Chinese, Jewish, and Arab traditions also have similar mountain figures.
- Modern Geographical Identification: Modern scholars, notably Dr. S.M. Ali, identify the Pamir Plateau as a strong candidate for Mount Meru due to its elevated position and geographical significance. The Himalayas and surrounding ranges are then identified with the mountains described in the Puranas.
Jambu-dvipa and its Regions:
- Northern Regions: Identified with mountainous regions like Karakoram, Dhaulagiri, Everest, the Himalayas, and Hindu Kush. The Pamir Plateau is considered a strong candidate for Meru.
- Northern Provinces:
  - Ramyaka (Ramya): Compared to the ancient state of Sogdiana (located in the Oxus and Zarafshan river basins), known for its advanced agriculture and civilization. Samarkand's ancient establishment supports this.
  - Hairanyavat (Hari): Identified with the region along the Zarafshan river, which flowed through Sogdiana. The river Hiranyavati is linked to the Zarafshan, and Suvarnakula to its banks, all signifying "gold."
  - Uttar Kuru (Airavat): Compared to the western Siberian region encompassing the Irtysh, Ob, Ishim, and Tobol rivers.
- Western Region (Ketumal): Identified with the region west of Meru (Pamir), the basins of the Oxus and Amudarya rivers. It's associated with the ancient Bactria and the Turan desert, and its river, Sitoda, is linked to the modern Kizil-Su.
- Eastern Region (Bhadravarsha): Identified with the Tarim and Hwang-Ho river basins in modern Xinjiang and northern China. The river Sita is also mentioned here.
- Southern Region: Associated with the mountains Himavan, Hemakuta, and Nishadha. The regions are identified as Haimavat, Hari, and Bharatavarsha. Bharatavarsha is considered the Indian subcontinent.
Jambu-dvipa and India: The text connects the Puranic narrative of Manu and his descendants distributing the earth to his sons with the geographical distribution of humanity. The concept of a single origin for humanity and its subsequent spread and diversification into different groups, each developing its own civilization in different geographical environments, is discussed. This aligns with modern scientific theories of human migration and evolution.
Geographical Extent of Jambu-dvipa: Based on modern geographical understanding, Jambu-dvipa's expanse is considered to be from Siberia in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south, China and the Pacific Ocean in the east, and the Caspian Sea in the west.

The author concludes by expressing gratitude to Dr. S.M. Ali for his seminal work, "The Geography of the Purans," which greatly aided in the research for this essay.

In essence, the book attempts to bridge ancient cosmological descriptions with contemporary geographical knowledge, seeking to identify and correlate the mythical landscapes of Jambu-dvipa with real-world geographical locations and features, highlighting the continuity of certain concepts across different traditions.